Health and Health Care Essay

The book â€Å"Health and Health Care 2010: The Forecast, The Challenge† by Roy Amara et al. provides detailed analysis of trends that will affect health care policies and practices by 2010. In particular, the authors have made an excellent effort to forecast stability and volatility of health care in the USA. The authors cover the following topics: health care forecast, demographic trends, health care demands, health insurance, children’s health, medical and information technologies, diversity and the workforce. Managers and staff members will find the chapters about information and medical technologies of particular interest. Nevertheless, the issue of ablation is paid too little attention. The authors argue that the primary purpose of the book is to make readers aware of critical factors that affect health care system in the beginning of the 21st century. When speaking about demographic trends and burden of disease, they claim that American population will be more ethnically diverse and older. Thus, such situation will be very likely to result in increased number of chronic diseases. One more important problem is that health care costs have increased meaning that less people can afford highly-qualified medical support. The authors predict growth of Medicare and Medicaid by 2010 due to changes in health care insurance systems. They say that â€Å"during the 1990’s, the managed care became the dominant health care insurance and delivery system, covering more than 60 percent of publicly and privately insured lives†. (p. XX) Managed care plays is argued to play important role in controlling national expenditures on health care, and people are provided with coordinated health care. Nevertheless, managed care is highly criticized by physicians, the media and consumers, but the government decided to make managed care an effective mechanism of controlling costs and delivering health care. The way the health care system is organized is swiftly changing, and surplus of hospital beds will contribute to consumer’s market. However, intermediaries will be entailed with a new role. The authors mention that the negative moment is that little changes were provided in the way the physicians practice medicine. Even the invention of the telephone, the computer and Internet didn’t significantly change medical practices. Of course, exceptions are present. It is physicians who are the central figures in health care, but surplus of doctors and new roles of health care providers are very likely to shift that paradigm over the next decades. New medical and information technologies are of particular interest for managers and staff members, and they are claimed to be the key driving force in organization of the health care system in the beginning of the 21st century. The problem is that health care industry is the last in implementing information technologies that would increase quality and effectiveness of health care delivery. The authors write that â€Å"beginning in the19th century, medicine has made great strides in verifying the germ theory, creating aseptic surgical techniques, discovering antibiotics, developing anesthesia, and imaging the inside of the body†. (p. 111) Of course, the impact of such innovations is undeniable and huge as physicians gained an excellent opportunity to improve public health, to extend the life span, and to improve the quality of life. Moreover, the quality of health care delivering was heightened as well. Nine medical technologies are argued to significantly affect the outcomes of patient care and health care delivering: rational drug design, advances in imaging, minimally invasive surgery, genetic mapping, genetic testing, gene therapy, artificial blood, effective vaccines, implementation of stem cells and xenotransplantation. Stem cells â€Å"can generate all other types of cells in the body and therefore hold great promise for replacing or repairing tissues and organs damaged by disease†. (p. 131) Researches of stem cells are nowadays one of the most interesting, the most promising and contradictive area of discussions and medical researches. Many researchers agree that development of the new method would open new doors before medicine. Some scientists say that creating of new human embryo must be prohibited, because it s morally unacceptable and religiously unethical. The authors continue that medical management is implemented sporadically nowadays. In particular, medical management is defined as an active management of the care of the population. Today, medical management fully depends on information systems that are used for monitoring and tracking medical processes and outcomes. Disease management programs positively impact medical practices and patient management. When speaking about public health, the authors admit that â€Å"over the past 30 years the public health system has operated under pressures of resource scarcity, limits in leadership, and organizational fragmentation†. (p. 9) Public health system is safety-net medical provider, and economic problems make its performance hardly bearable. Over the next decades global forces will the context in which public health systems will be very likely to operate. The authors conclude that global economies increase health risks and, therefore, public health system should be embedded in the context of global threats and opportunities. Cost-effective technologies should be developed for enhancing surveillance, screening and environmental health. Finally, public health strategies should aim at employing ecological strategies as ecology is human and structural determinant of health behavior. Managed care will remain dominant in health care insurance. References Amara, R. et al. (2003). Health and Health Care 2010: The Forecast, The Challenge (2nd ed. ). Princeton, NJ: Jossey-Bass.

Globalisation on Jamaica Essay

1. Causes of globalization affecting Jamaica: * For Jamaica, the main reason for globalization was darker. The energy Crisis of the early 1970s forced the Jamaican Government to take out loans from the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank to cover the rising expenses of fuel based imports. However they weren’t interested in cooperating with Jamaica in developing native infrastructure and resources, so they enforced a short-term repayment of the debt, budget cuts in areas supporting long term development, and removing all trade barriers that favored local industry and farming. Thus, this started the forceful movement of â€Å"globalization† in Jamaica. Three negative globalization cases with causes and effects: * The first one involved Jamaica’s dairy industry. Due to free trade agreements between the United States and Jamaica, dairy farmers in Jamaica had to directly compete with American farmers without any subsidy aid from the government. This resulted in the influx of cheaper powdered milk into Jamaica from the USA, destroying its entire dairy industry altogether and farmer selling cows to the slaughterhouse at a loss. The effect of globalization on Jamaica in this case, only fostered dependency on other nations rather than focusing on its own economic development. * The second case is caused by the â€Å"Banana Wars† between Europe and America. Britain had a long-standing trade agreement with Jamaica that favored their banana exports as a way of compensating for their legacy of colonialism. This brought about complaints to the World Trade Organization (WTO) by the USA backed up by large agricultural multinational corporations like Dole, Chiquita and Delmonte who at the time already had 95% of the world’s banana trade, citing it as unconstitutional and against WTO’s policy. The ruling of WTO in USA’s favor and an international penetration of trade into Jamaica’s biggest banana market ensured yet another downfall upon one of the country’s most profitable industries due to the lack of production efficiency. * The third case came about due to the increasing economic stagnation and poverty in Jamaica. To combat this, the government agreed to create Free Trade Zones in Kingston where governmental enforcement does not apply. Ships would unload materials cut in the USA and Jamaican workers would sew garments in huge textile assembly plants near the docks for Hanes, Brooks Brothers and Tommy Hilfiger at $30 per week. These wages were not enough to sustain their standard of living and when protests emerge, the owners simply closed down their shops and relocated to Mexico, where a cheaper work force can be found. This is an example of the â€Å"race to the bottom† stemming from the effects of globalized capitalism. As a result, it leaves Jamaican citizens with lose or lose situation to either comply with unfair demands of employers or risk unemployment. 2. 3 examples in making Global Labour fair * In order to make Global Labour fair, three sectors of society, government, multinationals and civil societies must work together using their own sets of expertise. * The first example involves the Clinton administration regarding their stance on trade in 1996. The government provided the resources and the stage to gather civil societies such as human rights NGOs and trade unions, industry leaders, and its own department of labor to discuss about responsibilities in Global Labour. Civil societies present at the meetings gave ideas and insights about developing a global code of conduct in making labour fair as well as NGOs such as the Fair Labour Association provided awareness to the public about this matter. Then multinationals and industry leaders collaborated by implementing this code of conduct throughout their supply chain, terminating contracts from their suppliers if specific labour conditions are not met. Thus forcing the improvement of Labour standards. * The second example involves the New Zealand Recognized Seasonal Employers Scheme (RSE) to relieve seasonal shortages in the NZ horticulture and viticulture industry through an overseas labour force. The NZ government collaborated with other governments of the Pacific Island Regions to provide the legal requirements and immigration processes to facilitate the influx of workers. Businesses provide employment opportunities to the migrant labour force. On top of that, the government established an evaluation board which includes NGOs such as The New Zealand Council of Trade Unions to monitor key activities, evaluate outcomes and ensuring equity and respect for migrant worker rights. The collaborations between this three sectors of society (government, businesses and civil societies), made sure the benefits of global trade between NZ and Pacific Island Countries are mutual. * The last example includes the consumer goods multinational, Unilever who has taken significant strides in sustainable living regarding the 2001 mercury poisoning in Kodaikanal, India. NGOs such as Greenpeace were responsible of raising the issue to Unilever about scrap glass containing mercury from a Unilever thermometer factory being sold to a scrap dealer located nearby. This was a breach of Unilever’s procedures as workers’ health and then environment could be adversely affected. Unilever immediately closed the plant and removed the glass scraps and the soil beneath the scrap back to the factory. After negotiations, the Indian and US governments were responsible for providing Unilever legal permits for transporting and recycling these hazardous materials in the United States. The commitment of Unilever in ethical choices combined with the cooperation of civil societies and government organizations help prevent a potential fatal disaster that protected the welfare o f international labour. 3. Joseph Stigliz’s plans or conditions for making globalization work: * Eliminating or reducing poverty through more foreign assistance from advanced industrial countries to 0.7 percent of their GDP. Although I feel it’s a good idea for countries to redistribute wealth to disadvantaged nations in order to help make globalization work, I also think that imposing a general level of GDP assistance without consideration of a country’s individual economic conditions is unfair. In recent years, we saw the EU struggling with the financial collapse of Greece and the spread of investor uncertainty throughout its member nations. In this case, I felt that a reduction of foreign aid to focus on own problems is understandable because if developing nations lose a big trade partner such as the EU due this matter, results will be worse off in the long run for both parties. * Stigliz also suggested that this foreign assistance should be given in forms of grants instead of loans as well as and an altered approach to conditionality. I agree with this Idea as we saw earlier with Jamaica, most developing countries face the same problem of debt. Jamaica was forced by the IMF and the World Bank to open up trade barriers which forced dependency on other countries and the destruction of local industries. In addition to that, most governmental spending as well as any foreign earnings from exports is used to service this debt and its ever-growing interest instead of investing in the country’s long term development. This severely limits Jamaica from restarting its own economy, making globalization benefits one sided. * Making trade fair is also on Stigliz’s agenda. For example, removing trade tariffs of developed countries before imposing them on disadvantaged countries. I agree upon this idea and my argument can be built again based on the collapse of Jamaica’s agriculture industry. Potato, onion, carrot farmers have to directly compete with USA on a level playing field by removing trade barriers. However whether this situation is equal is questionable since the USA still maintains its large agricultural subsidies to aid its own farmers forcing down prices of their own produce. This renders Jamaican farmers uncompetitive due to high borrowing costs and lack of governmental aid. I feel this is unfair as this undermines the living standards of developing countries such as Jamaica and advanced countries only benefit from the trade. Lowering trade tariffs in developed countries first allows developing countries a fair chance to adapt to changes in the economy. * Stigliz acknowledges the limitations of liberalization are important. This is shown with the Washington Consensus based upon the concepts of liberalization forged between the World Bank, IMF and U.S Treasury which focused on the downscaling of government, deregulation, and privatization. Argentina who followed the Consensus initially had expansion of investment and export volumes. However what followed was a disappointing increase in unemployment, poverty, inequality, crime and violence. I feel that the reason the consensus failed to revitalize the economy was that they employed a one-size-fits-all mentality. There was an overemphasis on GDP measures which was inefficient in measuring living standards, growth sustainability and equality. Thus these factors are ignored and contributed to the failure of the policy. Therefore, I believe that understanding the local market, government and their individual economic problems apart from just imposing liberalization is crucial in order to make globalization work. * Stigliz mentioned protecting the environment is a growing concern for globalization. The success of economic development in China and India increases the need for energy usage and the use of resources. I agree with Stigliz’s notion that the world’s environment would not able to sustain this change. This year, there was a public outcry of Beijing’s air pollution when the Air Quality Index in the city saw a staggering reading of 755. As a comparison, any reading above 100 is considered hazardous for sensitive groups. This is attributed to the exponential increase in industrial activity in China. Although China benefits from an economic boom, I feel people must realize the cost of this endeavour to its citizens as it is irresponsible to ignore the negative health effects it causes. Enforcing people to work under these conditions is no different to taking advantage of unfair Labour consistently found within the poor working conditions in developing countries.

Avon Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Avon - Essay Example Manufacturing, product management and sales were coordinated efficiently throughout its global market (www.dsef.org). Major products to be sold were’ perfumes, skin care products, hand, body and sun care products’. New and innovative products were added from time to time to offer more variety to the consumers. As with all businesses, the company faced stiff competition from other players in the field and had periods of slump in growth and profits, along with take-over attempts which the company was able to tide over under different managers. One such manager was a woman, Andrea Jung who was of Chinese descent and joined the company in 1994 as the President, Product marketing Group in the United States of America (www.avoncompany.com). Later on she was appointed as the CEO of the company in 1999 and was elected Chairperson in 2001. It was during her tenure that the cosmetics giant again suffered disappointing growth rates in the year 2000, faced with the rapidly changing marketplace (weblog.xanga.com). It was then that she implemented a number of grand strategies to reinforce the company image and induce a positive growth rate. The strategy included â€Å"expanding the product line in order to cater to a wide variety of populations of varied ethnicity of the world, involvement of a wide v ariety of distribution methods, entering the retail market and launching of internet sales for its products†. The grand strategy resulted in appositive growth rate by 2002 and during the period 2002-2005, the company posted a revenue growth of 9.1% which was much better than its nearest competitors (weblog.xanga.com). Major success was attributed to the expansion and diversification in product strategies as a result of market research studies initiated at the behest of Ms. Andrea Jung. The company’s average return from investment during this period catapulted to 35.7% as

Japanese Economy Evaluation of Opportunities for Foreign Investors Essay

Japanese Economy Evaluation of Opportunities for Foreign Investors - Essay Example However, in 2005 Japan succeeded in getting itself out from the economic depression cycle it was in. The economy started showing a positive growth reaching 2% in the third quarter of 2005. This resulted in an increase of capital investment, reaching 9.6% in the same quarter. Japan is and will remain one of the largest markets in the world. With 125 million people, well advanced, and an established infrastructure, it offers international businesses a valuable opportunity to establish itself in this economy. Japanese consumers have become more willing to purchase imported products such as food, computers, machinery, medical devices, pharmaceuticals and services. In addition Japanese companies have become more willing to accept foreign investment and cooperate with foreign partners, and as such Japan has never been as accessible to foreign goods and services. The Asia Pacific countries include China, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, The Philippines, Singapore, South Korea, Taiwan, Thailand, Vietnam and Japan. The 'Big Five' economies in the region are Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong and Singapore and Japan followed by a second group of Thailand, Malaysia and Indonesia. China and Vietnam comprise the next level of economies in the region. The Asian financial crisis was a major event that led many Asian governments to sit upright and pull up their socks. The crisis emerged in July 1997 and stormed the financial markets of Thailand. It spread on to other neighbouring countries until it became a pandemic. The crisis did not seem to touch Japan since it was already on a long 15 year old recession. But at the turn of the century, things have started to look-up. Japan has tuned up its banking systems to the right note and the Asian symphony is just going great. Japan is now leading the way in a new Asian business paradigm. Industrial output in Asia has been growing at a staggering +7.7% every year. This is more twice that of the United States. China is the largest recipient of FDI in the region with over $50

M10 data discussion Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

M10 data discussion - Assignment Example Children: National Health Interview Survey, 2010† available at http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/fastats/children.htm. The data was based on the question, â€Å"During past 12 months, was there any time when your child (aged 2 to 17 years) needed dental care including check-ups but did not get it because you could not afford it?† The hypotheses tested were: The results of the Chi-square Test for Two-way Tables suggested that there is an association between unmet dental need and sex of children, χ2(1,  N  = 66098000) = 5335.10,  p   Initially, at the start of the project, the main challenge was to select a question to investigate for the project that every team member agrees-on. The next challenge was to decide on the project parts that each group member would complete. Another challenge was to find valid data set for our research question: â€Å"Is there an association between unmet dental need (decay) and age and sex of children?† Luckily, all these challenges were easily handled because of group participations/discussions and contributions (and help) from each member. The results suggested that about 6.8% of female child aged 2 to 17 years unmet dental need as compared to about 6.4% of male child. In addition, unmet dental need based on the age of the children was 4.0% for children aged 2 to 4 years, 6.5% for children aged 5 to 11 years and 8.0% for children aged 12 to 17 years. Thus, for all age groups, girls tend to have more unmet dental needs than boys, and as the age of the child increases, there is more chance of unmet dental need. The results suggested that age and sex are associated with the level of unmet dental needs among children aged 2-17 in the US. In other words, the percentage of children

Why you cannot prepare a tax return showing these deductions unless he Assignment

Why you cannot prepare a tax return showing these deductions unless he can provide the receipts - Assignment Example The IRC Section 274 prescribes strict and specific documentation requirements for all business expenses claimed for travel purposes. Due to this prescription, the receipts will be required to fully substantiate your travel deductions (Pope, Anderson, Kramer, & Bandy, 2007). It is against the federal law to complete tax returns without the back up documents to verify the reported information. Moreover tax returns are prepared under the penalty for perjury and therefore it is equally vital to confirm all the details in the process of completing the tax returns. In view of this, i am under the standards prescribed in the IRC Section 6694, which demands that I prove the documented information before I prepare the tax returns for you. The fact that the reported figures cannot be adequately substantiated due to the absence of receipts, the benefits associated with some of these large deductions will be lost. As a matter of fact, there is a high probative value in these contemporaneous records of which it is for your own advantage that you avail them before the tax returns are

Impact of Music Education and Issues Stopping its Implementation Research Paper

Impact of Music Education and Issues Stopping its Implementation - Research Paper Example Music may be used to inform, express a sentiment, and entertain. Through music education, there are a lot of things that individuals have enjoyed. Elimination of music education in schools’ programs has negatively affected the society both in the present and the long run. Many reasons such as lack of funds; have contributed to its elimination in school programs and the society should look at the issue of the impacts of music, and what is stopping its implementation in order to bring it back to school programs. It has been discovered that music programs in schools help in exposing pupils and students to life (Olson, 1996). However, although music education has positive effects, it also has negative effects. Primary sources such as conduction of surveys of individuals in the field of teaching, and secondary sources such as books, periodicals, articles, and journals will be used in the study. Problem statement Music has contributed a lot in schools and society at large since it h elps students to gaining understanding of the things that they expect in life. Through music education, one acquires information that he did not have, and in another way, he is entertained. This implies that music education plays an important role in the life of students in the functioning of the brain in relation to academics. However, music education has not been taken seriously during incorporation in many school programs or by teachers all over the world due to different reasons, which will be discussed in this paper. This assignment is going to focus on the impacts of music education and the issues stopping its implementation. Objectives of the Study This assignment is going to be performed for the following two reasons: 1. To determine what are the effects of music on overall development of the brain including academics. 2. To find out why music education is not taken seriously by educators and the reasons for withholding the implementation of music education permanently by th e educators. Effects of Music on Overall Development of the Brain Different researches that have been conducted show that there is a connection between music and the brain. Different individuals have different opinions regarding the different styles of music and their effect on the mind. However, different individuals have concluded that classical music improves the ability of an individual’s thinking while rock music improves an individual’s brain power. Some researchers are of the opinion that listening to Mozart by children enhances their thinking ability (Piro &Ortiz, 2009). Another effect of music is that it improves concentration, which is necessary for studying (NAFME, 2012). For example, the Mozart piece soothes the mind thus increasing focus during studying or helps one to acquire concentration when carrying out a task (Lu, n.d.). According to opinion reached by several researchers, music creates concentrating in performing a task by blocking external noise an d creating a background noise, which is beneficial in carrying out the task (Hodges, n.d.). Different researchers have studied the Mozart effect and have come to a conclusion that; listening to Mozart before testing improves temporal reasoning on standardized tests while listening to Mozart at the time of testing can cause neural competition; by inferring with the brain’

Political reasons Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Political reasons - Article Example Our planet is suffering from climate change and we can no longer deny its effects. Storms are getting fiercer, hurricanes became more destructive, flooding becoming more frequent that it now cost us lives and properties. We should instead explore alternative source of energy to help heal our planet and make the lives of all people better before spending money on space projects which are very expensive with no real immediate benefit to improve the lot of mankind. Space projects do not immediately benefit us. So what if we understood the cosmos when we cannot address human suffering? This is not to say that space projects are useless. We just have to set our priorities straight. First we should alleviate human suffering, then fix our planet and when all of that is already done, then that would be the proper time to spend money on space projects. But for now, we have to direct our resources to more urgent

Comparing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 2

Comparing - Essay Example In the meantime, because His passing is a certainty of history, its otherworldly importance is not profound and secretive. For instance, by portraying Christ as "the Lamb of God, that takes away the transgression of the world," it tells us that His passing was a wrongdoing offering, and reparation for our wrongdoing. In the meantime, by letting us know "there is none other name under paradise given around men, whereby we must be spared," it makes it clear that there is no pardoning separated from confidence in Him. Even more along these lines, according to the Copelands Enfleshing Freedom, the demise of Christs obliges creature relinquish, those reparations were organized for our profit, as a method for helping us to comprehend the hugeness of Christs passing. Overall, in light of the fact that those offerings indicated forward Christs give up, all who offered them accepted Gods guarantee of pardoning in Christ. Moreover, as Paul demonstrated in the third section of Galatians, it was confidence in that guarantee (not the blood of bulls and goats) that brought absolution and salvation. Pope Benedict explained that how we comprehend the Eucharist relies on upon the spot of the sum of our formal festivals, in the real lives of the Christian group. What are the lines of association between our minutes assembled in corporate, formal petition to God and the nature of our living? We need to pose these questions in light of the fact that we have made such critical claims about the vitality of love in Christian life (Demarest, 9-11). He revealed that we as Christians claim that assembling approximately God, in recognition of God, to be a gift of God, to accept the endowment of Eucharist weaves the get together with the precise life of God. We guarantee that interest in ritualistic remembrance, in the consecrated life, completes in us what the ceremonies connote cooperation in the exact

Supply Chain Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Supply Chain Management - Essay Example d). Pepsi, the drinkable liquid is generally contained in a bottle and it has only two components. The main ingredients of Pepsi are carbonated water, sugar, emulsions, citric acid, additives, and flavourings; and glass, silica, and aluminium are the major raw materials used for bottles (Bhagat et al, n.d.). In the supply chain of Pepsi, the product passes through five different phases before reaching it in the hands of ultimate consumers. Firstly, the required raw materials are collected from the supplier and it is transferred to the plant. In the plant, the processing of raw materials takes place and the finished products are sent to wholesale distributors’ warehouses. The wholesaler distributes Pepsi to retailers on order placements; distribution vehicles play an important role in this phase. Ultimately, the product reaches the hands of original consumers and the whole process is regarded as the supply chain operations. Since this product largely employs water resources for the production, it adversely affects the environment. This negative feature in turn notably impinges on Pepsi’s supply chain management as it is a major societal issue. Similarly, large number of links in supply chain makes the product expensive to customers.

The concept of Trinity Essay Example for Free

The concept of Trinity Essay The concept of Trinity describes that God exists as a single being yet lives as three persons, consisting of the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit. The three persons are believed to be discrete and eternal persons, all belong to one Divine being. The doctrine that supports the concept of Trinity is Trinitarianism. This doctrine also describes that the Son, the second person of the Trinity, is comprised of two well-defined characters, the fully divine and the fully human characters. The concept of the Trinity is the consequence of incessant investigations conducted by the church on the information contained in the bible, as well as debates held with regards to the bible, and expositions on the concept. The dogma of a universal trinity was instituted in 325 AD, which then received enormous denials from religious sects. The most accepted theory of the Trinity is found in the Gospel of John in the Bible. Hence the Trinity explains the nature of God, as well as the spiritual circumstance of man (McGrath, 1990). This concept also rationalizes God’s design for grace and salvation, and the principle of the church. The Trinity also explains through the concept of the Trinity other issues such as evangelism, Christian education, social interactions, religious freedom and the family. The concept of Trinity describes that the existing creeds were produced as a result of heresies to their beliefs. This happened during the era of the apostles, which used the events of heresy as an optimal time to respond through the creation the creeds to attest to their beliefs. Reference McGrath AE (1990): Understanding the Trinity. Zondervan, ISBN 0310296811.

Road to Independence Notes Essay Example for Free

Road to Independence Notes Essay People are reconsidering the policy of colonialism. 1. After WWII, people questioned whether dictatorship was a good idea. 2. â€Å"All nations should be free from the power of other nations. † 3. Keeping colonies had a high cost. It wasn’t worth it. 4. Colonized people pressed harder for freedom. Ex: British-held India II. A Movement Toward Independence A. The Indian’s strive to freedom intensifies. 1. British had power over India for 2 centuries. 2. Britain drafted Indians into WWII in 1939 without the consent of the the colony’s representatives. . Gandhi launched civil disobedience and many who followed were arrested. 4. To gain favor of the Indians, Britain promised government changes after WWII, but didn’t offer freedom. B. Besides colonialism, India struggles with internal conflict. 1. They have religious disagreements. 350 million Hindus 100 million Muslims 2. The Congress Party (aka Indian National Congress: India’s national political party) was made up mostly of Hindus, and a few Muslims. C. The Muslim League is created. 1. The Muslim League (1906) is the organization against the mostly Hindu Congress Party, aimed to protect Muslim interest. . (The leader) Muhammad Ali Jinnah asked all Muslims to leave the Congress party. He would not accept independence from Britain if it meant staying under Hindu rule. III. Freedom Brings Turmoil A. The decision of who receives power is being made. 1. The British lost much wealth after WWII, and was ready to turn over their power, since keeping up with colonies was cos tly. 2. The power will either be given to Hindus or Muslims. B. Muslims resisted Hindu domination. 1. Rioting broke out and in 1946, there were 20,000 casualties in a 4 day clash in Calcutta. C. Pakistan was created. 1. To maintain peace, Britain decided to partition (division of Indian religions into separate nations; idea first brought up by Muslims) India. 2. North western and eastern part of India became Pakistan which was dominated by Muslims. D. Everything in India was being divided. 1. British granted India and Pakistan a month of independence in July 16, 1947. 2. Princes had to decide which nation they’d join. 3. The civil service (courts, military, railways, police) was divided. 4. The differing religions had to decide where to go. E. One million people died during the move to their new nation. 1. Muslims killed Sikhs moving to India. 2. Sikhs and Hindus killed Muslims going to Pakistan. 3. Gandhi went to the Indian capital (Delhi) to ask for mercy, but was killed by a hindu extremist in January 30, 1948. F. Hindus and Muslims fight for Kashmir. 1. Kashmir is at the northern point of India next to Pakistan. 2. It had a Hindu ruler, but the majority of people living there was Muslim. 3. Fighting continued until UN arranged cease-fire in 1949. 4. One-third went to Pakistan (Muslims) and the rest to India (Hindus). IV. Modern India A. India has become the world’s largest democracy. 1. India gained independence in August 15, 1947. 2. Jawaharlal Nehru (the independent nation’s first prime minister) addressed India’s freedom. B. Nehru is the leader. 1. He served the first 17 years of India’s independence as leader. 2. He was a devoted follower of Gandhi. 3. He emphasized democracy, unity, and economic modernization, and became very popular with all Indian groups. C. Nehru pushed India forward. 1. He led newly independent nations into making alliances with other non aligned nations. 2. He reorganized the states by language and pushed for industrialization and social reform. 3. He raised the status of those in lower class (lower castes and women). D. A new leader came. 1. Nehru died in 1964. 2. His daughter, Indira Gandhi, became prime minister in 1966, left office, and was re elected in 1980. E. Challenges set on Indira caused more violent acts and death. 1. Sikh extremists wanted an independent state. 2. The Golden Temple was the Sikh’s religious center. 3. The Sikhs attacked symbols of Indian authority, so Indians troops overran the Golden Temple, killing 500 Sikhs and destroying sacred property. 4. Indira was gunned down by Sikh bodyguards and another murder spree occurred, killing thousands of Sikhs. . Indira’s son, Rajiv, became prime minister, but lost power because of corruption. He was then killed. F. Atal Bihari Vajpayee faced problems. 1. The leader of the nationalist party of India, Vajpayee, faced challenges of overpopulation and strife among religions. 2. The struggle between India and Pakistan was bad, now that they became nucle ar powers. India exploded a nuclear device in 1974. For 24 years, India improved nuclear capability in private. In 1998, 5 nuclear tests were conducted. Pakistanis also showed they had nuclear capabilities. The nuclear weapons of both rival groups became an international concern, especially because of Hindus and Muslims continuous struggle over Kashmir. V. Pakistan Copes with Freedom A. Pakistan was already very turbulent and had differences between West Pakistan and East Pakistan. B. The two regions of Pakistan struggled with each other. 1. A tidal wave hit East Pakistan and killed 266,000 residents in 1970, calling for international aid that West Pakistan was not eager in giving. 2. East Pakistan protested and called to end all ties with West Pakistan. C. Pakistan undergoes its own partition. 1. On March 26, 1971, East Pakistan became Bangladesh. 2. Civil war broke out. Indians sided with Bangladesh and Pakistan surrendered. 3. 1 million people died. 4. One-seventh of area and one-half of the population in Pakistan was lost. D. Pakistan is instable. 1. After the death of the first governor general of India, the nation had no strong leader and went through many military coups. First in 1958 by Ali Bhutto Second in 1977 by General Zia Third Benazir Bhutto, Ali’s daughter, became prime minister. Fourth, Sharif in 1997. VI. Bangladesh and Sri Lanka Struggle A. Bangladesh faces many problems. 1. War brought economic and communication issues in Bangladesh. 2. Sheik Mujibur Rahman became the first prime minister of Bangladesh. Interested more in power than making reparations 3. Bangladesh tries to become democratic and fraud and corruption was common. Recently, it has been more stable and Begum Khaleda Zia became prime minister in 2001. 4. Natural disasters were troublesome. Bangladesh (low-lying) is subject to cyclones, tidal waves, massive storms which floods lands, ruins crops, takes lives, and homes. 5. Rapid growth in population put stress on the economy. B. There is civil strife in Sri Lanka. . Sinhalese Buddhists and Tamil Hindus make up the two main groups in Sri Lanka. 2. Tamils wanted to become a separate Tamil nation and violence occurred in order to do so. Rajiv Gandhi and the president on Sri Lanka made an agreement that called Indian troops to disarm Tamil rebels. A civil war between Tamils and Sri Lankans still exists. New Nations in Africa: Chapter 34 Section 3 I. Setting the Stage A. Africa was also a nation victim to colonization. B. Like India, they were unwilling to return to colonization after WWII, so they also won their independence and went on to creating new African nations. II. Achieving Independence A. A movement is made for Black Heritage. 1. The French-speaking Africans and West Indians grew pride for traditional Africa. 2. The Negritude movement (movement to celebrate African culture, heritage, and values) was formed. B. WWII changed the views of colonies and colonizers, which helped Africa gain independence from 1950s-1960s. 1. The African joined Europeans in WWII to defend freedom, and were unwilling to return to colonization. 2. The European colonizers developed morale and wondered whether it was a good idea to still hold colonies. In addition to morale, maintaining colonies was costly and wasn’t viewed as something worth losing money for. C. Africa achieved independence in a unique way. 1. Unlike other colonized areas that pushed for independence, Africa was colonized indirectly and directly. Those who were ruled indirectly were able to enjoy limited self-rule and were ruled by local officials. They achieved independence more easily. Those ruled directly were governed at all levels by foreigners and did not have any self rule. To get independence, they had to fight wars. D. Africa struggled even after they gained their independence. . They had to start from scratch: creating a new gov. , and establishing postcolonial economy. 2. Internal conflicts made it hard create stable nations. When colonized by Europeans, Africa was separated by random and many tribes who shared the same culture were divided and enclosed with rival groups, causing violence. III. Ghana Leads the Way A. The Gold Coast, a British col ony, achieves full independence. 1. The Gold Coast (South of the Sahara) achieved independence, so British allowed for Africans to be nominated for legislative council. 2. However, they wanted full freedom and created a group. . Kwame Nkrumah (leader of the nonviolent group) organized strikes and boycotts, and was also imprisoned many times, (starting in 1947) eventually being able to liberate the Gold Coast from the British government. B. Good intentions called for opposition against Nkrumah. 1. The Gold Coast became Ghana (from the Ghana Kingdom of Africa) after it received its independence in 1957. 2. Nkrumah, the first prime-minister and president for life, pushed for industrialization by building new roads, schools, and health facilities. 3. His programs were too costly, and people began to oppose him. C. Ghana still continues to struggle. 1. Nkrumah was criticized for neglecting economic issues. 2. When in China (1966) he was replaced by the police and army in Ghana. 3. The power shifts between civilian and military rule, and Ghana struggles economically. 4. 2000 marks the first open election in Ghana. IV. Fighting for Freedom A. The British is forced to allow Kenyan self-government. 1. The British were unwilling to give Kenyans independence because they’ve taken over prized farmland in the northern highlands of Kenya. 2. The Kenyans had 2 developments which forced British to surrender. Jomo Kenyatta’s (Kenyan nationalist) strong leadership. The Mau Mau, a secret society of mostly native Kenyan farmers forced out of the highlands by British people. B. The Mau Mau fight for independence. 1. Guerilla tactics were used to push out the British from the highlands. 2. Kenyatta had no connection to the Mau Mau but did not stop them from fighting for their freedom. 3. Kenyatta was imprisoned for about a decade. 4. Kenya was granted independence in 1963, however, 10,00 Africans and 100 settlers died. C. After gaining independence, Kenya still faced some struggles from poor leadership. 1. Kenyatta became the president and worked to reunite various groups in his nation, but he died in 1978. 2. He was succeeded by a weak leader, Daniel arap Moi. 3. Under Moi’s leadership was opposition to his one-party rule, corruption, and conflicts between ethnicities killing hundreds and making thousands homeless. 4. He left office in 2002, and a new party gained power through elections. D. Algeria wins independence through battle. 1. Algeria had a population of 1 million French and 9 million Arabs and Berber Muslims. 2. French did not want to share political power with the natives even after WWII. . The FLN (Algerian National Liberation Front) would fight for freedom, and upon hearing this, the French sent half a million troops to fight the FLN. 4. The FLN won and gained independence in July 1962. E. Uncertainty within Algeria calls for civil war. 1. The FLN leader, Ahmed Ben Bella, becomes president and attempts to make Algeria follow socialism, but is overthrown. 2. From 19 65-1988, Algeria tried to modernize, but failed. Religious fundamentalists wanted to make Algeria an Islamic state because they were dissatisfied with the current government and high unemployment rates. 3. The Islamic Salvation Front (FIS) won elections in 1990 and 1991, but the government and army refused the results. 4. Civil war broke out between Islamic militants and the government, and goes on and off until this day. V. Civil War in Congo and Angola A. The people of Congo were unprepared for independence, and it led to turmoil. 1. Belgians colonized and plundered Congo taking all its riches and resources such as rubber and copper. 2. They gave no social services to the natives of Congo, and did not prepare them for independence. 3. They granted Congo (aka Zaire from 1971-1997) independence in 1960, which cause upheaval, and civil war. B. Congo goes through two leaders. 1. Years of civil war sprung up, and Mobutu Sese Seko (aka Colonel Joseph Mobutu) seized power in 1965. He renamed Congo to Zaire and ruled it for 32 years. He held control over Zaire with force, one-party rule, and bribing supporters with gifts. He withstood rebellions. 2. In 1997, he was overthrown by Laurent Kabila (rebel leader). Zaire was renamed The Democratic Republic of Congo. C. Kabila wasn’t the leader people hoped for, and a new leader rises. 1. He became president and promised a democracy, but never delivered it. 2. Civil war broke out again, and rebel groups wanted to overthrow Kabila. . He was assassinated by a bodyguard in 2001. 4. Joseph Kabila, his son, took power and pushed for peace. 5. Rebels stopped rebelling in 2002 in hope that the peace may come. D. Angola (South West of Congo) fought for independence. 1. Angola was ruled by the Portuguese who were unwilling to let go of their colony. 2. An independence movement broke out and Portugal sent 50,000 troops to end it, which wiped out half of Portugal’s budget. 3. The cost of war and the war’s opposition in Portugal called for them to withdraw from Angola in 1975. E. Civil war broke out in Angola. 1. Angola became a new nation, and the MPLA (Communist leaning â€Å"Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola†) declared itself as the government. 2. Rebel groups fought against the government for power. 3. 50,000 Cuban troops and Soviet Union supported the MPLA. 4. South Africa and the U. S. supported the UNITA (the major opposition to the MPLA; â€Å"National Union for the Total Independence of Angola†) 5. The MPLA and UNITA abandoned many cease-fire agreements, but in 2002, a peace accord was agreed to and the civil war ended. Conflicts in the Middle East: Chapter 34 Section 4 I. Setting the Stage A. By the end of WWII, Jewish finally gained its own state, which proved to have bad consequences. 1. The Jewish gained a state that was located by the Mediterranean Sea. 2. It consisted of mostly Arabs who rejected the creation of a Jewish state. 3. Palestinians claimed Jewish states to be theirs, therefore opposing Jewish states. 4. Wars were fought between Jews and Arabs, and Jews and Palestinians. II. Israel Becomes a State A. Palestinians, Jews, and Arabs all claim the same lands (Israel, West Bank, and the Gaza Strip in modern day Palestine). 1. Jews’ reason: 3,000 before, Jewish Kings ruled the lands from Jerusalem. . Palestinians’ reason: land was theirs since Jewish exile on A. D. 135. 3. Arabs’ reason: their conquest of the lands in the 7th century (600s). B. The Jews wanted to return to Palestine and gain a Jewish state centuries after their exile. 1. The Jewish were unable to gain their own state after their exile, and dispersed around the world (Diaspor a). 2. Zionists (people who favored a Jewish state in Palestine) started returning to their homeland during the 19th and 20th centuries (1800s-1900s). C. A British idea of creating a Jewish homeland in Palestine cause sparks between the Jews and Palestinians. 1. The British directed Palestine (League of Nations’ commands) as a result of the loss of the Turkish Ottoman Empire in WWI. 2. Many Jews were in Palestine, and pressed for their own nation. 3. Palestinians opposed the idea, so when Secretary Sir Arthur Balfour of Britain proposed creating a Jewish state while keeping the rights of non-Jewish communities (Balfour Declaration) and the plan failed, tensions rose between Palestinians and Jews. D. The U. S. and many European nations felt sympathy towards the Jews, who were targeted in the Holocaust, so they devised a plan that would give Jews what they desired. 1. The UN General Assembly voted for partition in Palestine, one part being a Palestinian state, the other being a Jewish state, and Jerusalem being an international city owned by no one. 2. The Jews made up 34% of the population but gained 55% of the land. E. The partition was set, although Muslims and Palestines rejected it. 1. â€Å"The UN has no right to make such a proposal without first consulting the majority who will be affected by it. †- Muslims and Palestinians. 2. David Ben Gurion (leader of Jews in Palestine) announced that the independent nation of Israel was formed on May 14, 1948. III. Israel and Arab States in Conflict A. War broke out between Israeli and Arab states. 1. The first one (won by Israel) was a day before Israel became a nation, where Islamic states (Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, Saudi, Arabia, and Syria invaded Israel. B. The partition wasn’t fully effective because of fighting. 1. Israel seized half of Palestine in 1948-1949. 2. 600,000 Palestinians left to nearby UN sponsored refugee camps. 3. Arabs also seized Palestinian lands. C. War broke out in 1956 during the Suez Crisis. 1. Egypt seized the Suez Canal. 2. Gamal Abdel Nasser (Egyptian president) sent troops to seized the canal controlled by British because he was angry that the U. S. and British stopped financially supporting Egypt’s Aswan Dam. 3. Britain formed an alliance with France and israel to regain the Suez canal. 4. Israel defeated the Egyptians using air support of their European allies. 5. The war ended when the U. S. and Soviets forced Israel and Europeans out of Egypt, ultimately giving Egypt the Suez Canal by the end of the Suez Crisis. D. Another war broke out in 1967, called the Six-Day War. 1. Nasser and Arab allies, equipped with Soviet tanks and aircraft were ready to confront Israel and close off Israel’s outlet to the Red Sea, the Gulf of Aqaba. 2. Israelis knew Arabs would attack, so the struck airfields in Egypt, Iran, Jordan, and Syria, and ground forces defeated Arab states in this Six-Day War. 4. Israelis gained the lands around them (Jerusalem, Sinai Peninsula, The Golden Heights, and the West Bank). 5. They served as buffers for future attacks. 6. Palestinians living in Jerusalem chose Jordanian citizenship, and others not living in Jerusalem went other Jewish control. E. A fourth War broke out in October 1973, called the Yom Kippur War. 1. Anwar Sadat,(Egyptian president who succeeded Nasser) planned an Arab attack on Israel during Yom Kippur. . Sadat was able to reconquer land lost in the Six-Day War. 3. Golda Meir (prime minister of Israel during the Yom Kippur War) counterattacked and regained most the land. 4. After weeks of fighting, a truce was declared. F. Palestinians pushed for recognition and its own state. 1. The UN had given Palestinians its own state during the partition, but the land given was seized by Is raelis during their vast amount of wars. 2. The PLO (Palestine Liberation Organization) was organized by Palestinian officials in 1964, and initially consisted mostly of social workers, like teachers, lawyers. 3. Guerilla fighters then dominated the PLO and insisted that to get what they want, it needs to be done by means of struggle. 4. Yasir Arafat became PLO’s chairman in 1969 and carried out attacks on Israel, which was supported by Arabs, since they were able to operate on Arab land. IV. Efforts at peace A. An attempt of peace was made by Anwar Sadat. 1. In 1977, he declared that Israeli parliament (Knesset) and Arabs make peace, with the terms that Israel returns the land they took in the Six-Day War and recognize Palestinian rights. B. An agreement is reached between the Israel and Arab country. 1. President Carter invited Anwar and the Israeli prime minister, Menachem Begin, to a presidential retreat, Camp David, Maryland, 2. There, Begin and Sadat negotiated, and finally in 1979, Carter announced that Egypt recognized the Israeli state and Israel returned the Sinai Peninsula, in an agreement called the Camp David Accords. C. Peace was maintained even after Anwar’s assassination. 1. Muslim extremists were enraged at his plan for peace, and killed him. 2. Hosni Mubarak maintained the peace. D. Tensions increased between Israelis and Palestinians. 1. The military of PLO intensified its armed struggle with Israel during the 1970s-1980s. . Israel responded by bombing bases of Palestinian towns and invading neighboring countries such as Lebanon, to destroy Palestinian strongholds. 3. Israel became involved in the Lebanon civil war and was forced to withdraw. 4. Palestinians showed their frustration with civil disobedience (using boycotts, attacks on Israeli soldiers, demonst rations, and rock throwing) called intifada (uprising) in 1987. 5. This put global pressure on Israel, which forced them to organize peace talks with Israeli and Palestinian delegates on October 1991. E. The peace talks made little progress, so a new document was made. . Secret talks in Oslo, Norway produced an agreement called the Oslo Peace Accords (Declaration of Principles), which stated that Palestinians have self-rule in the Gaza Strip and West Bank, beginning with the town of Jericho. 2. The agreement was signed on September 13, 1993 by the Israeli prime minister, Yitzhak Rabin, and Arafat. F. The agreement was hard to work out. 1. A Jewish extremist, who opposed concessions to Palestinians, assassinated Rabin in 1995. 2. He was succeeded by Benjamin Netanyahu, who also opposed the Oslo Accords, but was willing to keep to the agreement. . He met with Arafat in 1997 to discuss Israeli partial withdrawal from the West Bank. V. Peace Slips Away A. The peace agreement is stalled. 1. Prime Minister Ehud Barak (1999) supported the peace plan more t han Netanyahu. 2. (2000) Bill Clinton hosted a summit meeting between Ehud Barak and Arafat in Camp David, but they couldn’t reach a compromise. B. A second intifada was launched. 1. An Israeli political leader, Ariel Sharon, visited the Dome of the Rock, a reverend place for Muslims. 2. Muslims were outraged and broke out a new intifada. 3. The second intifada was much like the first one, but instead, included suicide bombers which called for more bloodshed. 4. The Israelis responded by bombing possible Palestinian refugee camps, where extremist could be hiding. They also bombed Arafat’s headquarters. C. Peace seems far from being reached. 1. Ariel Sharon became the prime minister of Israel in 2001, and refused to negotiate with the Palestinians if the attacks of suicide bomber continued. 2. Israeli officials declared to no longer meet with Arafat, who had strained relations with many Israeli leaders. D. A solution for peace is being worked on. 1. Arafat agreed to lessen his involvement in peace talks, and the first prime minister of the PLO, Mahmoud Abbas, was appointed in 2003. 2. George W. Bush brought together Sharon and Abbas to work on a peace plan called the â€Å"road map. † E. Sharon and Abbas are willing to find a solution. 1. Sharon declared that he looks for the day when Palestinians can govern themselves in their own state. 2. Abbas declares that the goal was for Israel and Palestine to live side-by-side in peace and security. Central Asian Struggles: Chapter 34 Section 5 I. Setting the Stage A. The region of Central Asia changes throughout history because it has been invaded by many powerful groups (Mongols, Byzantines, Ottomans, and the rulers of the Soviet Union. B. The people of this region still tried to keep its culture, and longed to create their own nations. 1. It was made possible with the fall of the Soviets Union. C. They were faced with challenges in making strong independent nations. II. Freedom Brings New Challenges A. Two geographic areas are made. 1. The Soviet Union fell in 1991. 2. Their republics in the south became 15 independent nations which were split into two geographic areas. 3. Transcaucasian Republics (Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia) lies between the Black and Caspian seas, on the Caucasus Mountains. 4. Central Asian Republics (Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, Kazakhstan, and Kyrgyzstan) lies east of the Caspian sea and extends to the Tian Shan and Pamir mountains. B. These independent nations deeply depended on the Soviet Union for economic help, so they could not be independent. C. The Soviets made economic practices which weakened these nations’ economy. 1. Eg: The Soviets made Central Asian Republics available farms grow cotton, and having only a single crop made the economy unbalanced. D. Azerbaijan can receive income through its richness in oil, because of the Caspian Sea. Kazakhstan and Turkmenistan are still tapping into their oil reserves. E. Ethnic and religious differences causes conflict. F. With the fall of the Soviet Union, who prevented the nations from fighting because of the ironfist rule, the ethnic groups began to battle. 1. Eg: Azerbaijan (Muslim country), which surrounded Nagorno-Karabakh (Armenian Christians), battled the Armenians during 1991-1994 when the Armenians pushed to be a new independent nation. III. Afghanistan and the World A. Afghanistan (mostly Muslim nation), which is the least developed country (it was inhabited by farmers or herders), surprised the world with war against the Soviet Union and U. S. B. Afghanistan had many struggles already. 1. Russia wanted Afghanistan because it was near the Indian Ocean 2. British wanted to protect the northern border of its Indian Empire with Afghanistan’s land, eventually fighting 3 wars prior to 1919. C. Afghanistan tries to modernize. 1. In 1919, Afghanistan declared itself a new independent nation, setting up a monarchy. 2. In 1964, reforms and a switch to a democratic government was proposed. . Officials could not agree on reforms, and people people were not interested in the Afghanistan government, so the proposals did not carry out. D. Communism starts to influence Afghanistan. 1. Afghanistan became stable enough to have ties with the U. S. and Soviet Union. 2. They were nonaligned during the Cold War and received support from both sides. 3. They were closely situated with the Soviets. 4. Military leaders overthrew the government in 1973 and rival groups who had close ties with Soviet communists seized power in 1978. 5. Communism conflicted with Islamic teachings. E. The Afghanis stayed loyal to their religion and did not fall to communism. 1. Those who believed that communism conflicted with Islamic teachings formed a group called Mujahideen, who freely fought and rebelled against the government supported by the Soviets. 2. The Soviets heard about this and tried to conquer Afghanistan in 1979-1980 as a new nation in its communist empire. 3. Afghanistan was supported by the U. S. and used guerilla warfare and their knowledge of the terrain to their advantage. 4. In a bloody 10 year war, the Soviets withdrew, and Afghanistan won. F. With the Soviets gone, rebels groups fought for power, and the victor was the Taliban. 1. They were a conservative Islamic group who were controlled 90% of the country by 1998. 2. They turned out to be Islamic Extremists who made strict rules that controlled every aspect of life (woman could not have jobs or go to school, you couldn’t listen to music or watch TV) and punished those who did not listen (severe beating, amputation, and execution). G. The Taliban played a major role in terrorism. 1. They allowed terrorists to train in Afghanistan. 2. They provided refuge to the al-Qaeda leader, Osama Bin Laden. 3. After September 11, the Taliban was asked to give up Osama Bin Laden, but they refused. 4. The U. S. bombed Taliban air defense, airfields, and command centers. 5. The Northern Alliance (anti-Taliban force) was supported by the U. S. and finally was able to overthrow the Taliban. H. Hamid Karzai, the selected leader after the overthrow of the Taliban, would find it hard to stabilize a nation who has been under decades of warfare, and he would also find it difficult to unite a nation with 12 different ethnic groups.

History and Concepts of Human Rights

History and Concepts of Human Rights A. HISTORY + CONCEPTS OF HUMAN RIGHTS 1. What were the major conceptual and historical influences on the drafting of the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights? The major conceptual and historical influences on the drafting of the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights had began at the beginning of the Second World War then the prominent scholars of that time started writing about the importance of Human Rights. The prominent British utopian writer H. G. Wells launched a campaign to bring Human Rights to the attention of the public at large. In yearly 1940s Wells, had written a lot of works concerning with the issue of Human Rights. Hence he entitled one of his books The Right of Man or What Are We Fighting For? He spoke or corresponded with any leading figures of the time, including Franklin and Eleanor Roosevelt, Jan Masaryk, Gandhi and many others, who at the end of the war would draft the preamble of the United Nations Charter and Universal Declaration of Human Right. Many other individuals and NGOs added their contributions, such as the journalist Clarence Streit published his book Union Now: A Proposal, urging all democra tic nations to unite on behalf of individual freedoms and what he called â€Å"the rights of man.† (Paul Gordon Lauren, 2003). Freeman (2002, p.32) points that the period from French Revolution to the Second World War was the dark age of the concept of human rights.. So, one can say that, at the end of the Second World War, the people had realized the importance of the concept of Human Rights. 2. What were the main contemporary events influencing the drafting of the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights?   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã¢â‚¬Å"The campaign reminds us that in a world still reeling from the horrors of the Second World War, the Declaration was the first global statement of what we now take for granted the inherent dignity and equality of all human beings.†   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon (2008) From his words one can say that the main event which had great influence on drafting of the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights was the Second World War. The horror of the Second World War made international community to act towards human rights and to prevent future wars. 3. How would you describe the competing conceptions of rights that existed during the period of the Cold War? In 1976, the two conventions finally came into force with thirty-five states ratifying them. The two conventions were the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. Why two covenants? The Cold War was still firmly in place, and the focus of the two political blocs (U.S. and the USSR) had very different emphases on what counted as human rights. The U.S. bloc focused on civil and political rights, while the Soviet bloc focused more on economic and social rights. The Commission wisely drafted two separate conventions to reflect this difference in focus (Centre on Law Globalization n.d.). 4. With reference to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and to the concept of ‘dignity, outline the human rights perspective on torture. Article 5 of the UDHR states that â€Å"[n]o one shall be subjected to torture or to cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment†, and the prohibition against torture and abuse is now codified in a number of international and regional treaties to which many countries are a party, including the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the UN Convention Against Torture. The prohibition of torture and cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment is absolute and non-derogable. Unfortunately, violations of this most prized human right occur routinely in many prisons, although they are sanctioned by official policy (Human Rights Watch 2009). 5. Outline and characterize in not more than 75 words the relationship between religious freedom and gender equality.   Ã‚  Ã‚  To resolve conflicts between the two sets of rights, we need balancing approach based on facts. The factors that she highlights as important to consider when the rights clash include: the relationship between the equality right and the goal of gender equality, the importance of the religious practice to the right of religious freedom, the degree of infringement, the relation of other human rights to the conflict, the cumulative effects of religious limitations on womens rights, and the proportionality of restrictions on religious laws (NYU of Law 2009). 6. Why does Donnelly (Donnelly 2003, pp.22-37 204-224) argue that individuals, rather than groups, are the proper subject of human rights? Donnelly (2003 p.25) argues that if human rights are the rights that one has simply as a human being, then only human beings have human rights; if one is not a human being, by definition one cannot have human rights. Because only individual persons are human beings, it would seem that only individuals can have human rights. 7. Identify and discuss in no more than 75 words the impact of TWO events on the expansion of human rights in the last ten years. From my point view one of the events is the end of Cold War Era and second is Terrorism. The end of Cold War had opened new borders for spreading the concept of Human Rights. The second event which had an impact on the expansion of human rights is Terrorism. Nowadays Terrorism is the most threat to anyone, and this â€Å"word† is everywhere and lots of people are suffering. So these two events had a great impact on the expansion of human rights. B. INTERNATIONAL MACHINERY 8. Explain the difference between a declaration and a treaty. A treaty is a legally binding convention, coming into force upon ratification by a certain number of States. A declaration is not legally binding but carries moral weight because it is adopted by the international community (UN 2009) 9. Which international treaty has the most ratifications, and how many? More countries have ratified the Convention than any other human rights treaty in history-192 countries had become State Parties to the Convention as of November 2005 (UNICEF 2009). 10. Which rights are non-derogable under the ICCPR? What does this mean? According to the Article 4, section 2 of International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1966) no derogation from articles 6, 7, 8 (paragraphs I and 2), 11, 15, 16 and 18 may be made under this provision. Well this means that sates can not ‘take measures derogating from their obligations []‘ (International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights 1966) 11. Identify a case under the ICCPR Optional Protocol where the Committee has found in favour of the petitioner. Supply the citation for the case and summarise the Committees view in not more than 75 words. Article I of the Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1976) states that a State Party to the Covenant that becomes a Party to the present Protocol recognizes the competence of the Committee to receive and consider communications from individuals subject to its jurisdiction who claim to be victims of a violation by that State Party of any of the rights set forth in the Covenant. No communication shall be received by the Committee if it concerns a State Party to the Covenant which is not a Party to the present Protocol. Well, Optional Protocol allows individuals to complain to the Human Rights Committee about violations of the Covenant. 12. In 100 words state what in your view was the most significant issue raised by the UN Human Rights Committee in its recent review of Finland and why. Finlands State Secretary of Political Affairs, Dr. Teija Tiilikainen (2008), said that despite progress the country still struggles with cases of racism and intolerance. Looking through the Universal Periodic Review, I made a conclusion that Finland still facing problems like discrimination, racism and xenophobic attitudes. In my opinion the most significant issue raised by UN Human Rights Committee is racism and intolerance. The issues of racism and intolerance were raised by UN because, from the history we can see that all these destabilisations within the country like racism, intolerance were bringing the country to the humanitarian crisis. 13. How does the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child define a child? Article 1 of the Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989) defines child as, [] every human being below the age of eighteen years unless under the law applicable to the child, majority is attained earlier. 14. What has to happen before the UN Convention on the Rights of Disabled People enters into force? Before the UN Convention on the Rights of Disabled People came into force, the UN established an Ad Hoc Committee â€Å"to consider proposals for a comprehensive and integral international convention to promote and protect the rights and dignity of persons with disabilities, based on the holistic approach in the work done in the fields of social development, human rights and non-discrimination and taking into account the recommendations of the Commission on Human Rights and the Commission for Social Development.† (ENABLE 2007). 15. What reservation has Argentina made to CEDAW? What is the impact of this reservation? The Government of Argentina declares that it does not consider itself bound by article 29, paragraph 1, of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (Bayefsky 2008). 16. Who is the current United Nations Special Rapporteur on Trafficking in Persons and when was she appointed? The current United Nations Special Rapporteur on Trafficking in Persons is Ms. Joy Ngozi Ezeilo from Nigeria. She was appointed in June 2008 (United Nations Human Rights 2009). C. REGIONAL MACHINERY 17. Who is entitled to submit individual complaints under the European, American and African regional human rights systems and to which particular regional bodies? According to the Article 34 of the Convention for the protection of Human Rights (2003) the court may receive applications from any person [] claiming to be the victim of violation by []. Article 19 of the same Convention states, to ensure the observance of the engagements undertaken by the High Contracting Parties in the Convention and the Protocols thereto, there shall be set up a European Court of Human Rights, hereinafter referred to as the Court. It shall function on a permanent basis (European Court of Human Rights 2009). So basically, other regional human rights systems are established almost in the same way of European. 18. How many States are currently members of the Council of Europe? Which State is the most recent member? Which States special guest status has been suspended due to its lack of respect for human rights and democratic principles? Cite your source(s). Currently members of the Council of Europe are 47 countries. The most recent member is Montenegro, which joined the Council of Europe on 11th May 2007 (Council of Europe 2009). In January 1997 the Bureau of the Parliamentary Assembly decided to suspend the special guest status for the Parliament of Belarus. As a result, the consideration of Belarus application for membership in the Council of Europe was suspended, and the bilateral Cooperation Programme was frozen (Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Belarus 2009). 19. What Conventions has the Council of Europe adopted which offer specific protection for minorities? There are several Conventions adopted by Council of Europe for the protection of minorities, such as European Convention on the repatriation of minors, European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages and Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities (Council of Europe 2009). 20. When did the European Convention for the Prevention of Torture come into force and how many States are currently parties to it? What monitoring and/or enforcement machinery did the Convention establish and what does it do? European Convention for the Prevention of Torture came into force on 1st March 2002 and it is ratified by 47 states. The Convention operates in relation to persons who allege that they are victims of violations of Article3 and the main purpose of the Convention is to protect people from torture (Council of Europe 2009). 21. When did the Inter-American Convention on the Forced Disappearance of Persons come into force? How does it define forced disappearance? The Inter-American Convention on the Forced Disappearance of Persons came into force on May 28 1996 (The Secretariat for Legal Affairs n.d.). Article second of Inter-American Convention on the Forced Disappearance of Persons (1994) defines that forced disappearance is considered to be the act of depriving a person or persons of his or their freedom, in whatever way, perpetrated by agents of the state or by persons or groups of persons acting with the authorization, support, or acquiescence of the state, followed by an absence of information or a refusal to acknowledge that deprivation of freedom or to give information on the whereabouts of that person, thereby impeding his or her recourse to the applicable legal remedies and procedural guarantees (The Secretariat for Legal Affairs n.d.). 22. Under what authority can States denounce the American Convention on Human Rights? When did Trinidad Tobago denounce the ACHR and why? According to the Article 78 of the American Convention on Human Rights (1969), The States Parties may denounce this Convention at the expiration of a five-year period from the date of its entry into force and by means of notice given one year in advance. Notice of the denunciation shall be addressed to the Secretary General of the Organization, who shall inform the other States Parties. The Denunciation of Trinidad and Tobago was notified in May 26, 1998, and denunciation was because of death penalty (The Secretariat for Legal Affairs n.d.). 23. When was Algerias 3rd and 4th periodic reports (submitted in September 2006) examined by the African Commission? To whom does the report say capital punishment does not apply in Algeria? Algerias 3rd and 4th periodic reports were examined by the African Commission on it 42nd Ordinary Session from 15th to 28th of November in 2007 (African Commission on Human and Peoples Rights 2009). Capital punishment is not applicable to minors aged 13 to 18.Article 50 of the Criminal Code provides that â€Å"should be decided that a minor aged between 13 to 18 must be given criminal sentence []. (Peoples Democratic Republic of Algeria. African Charter on Human and Peoples Rights, Third and fourth periodical reports, 2006, p.13) 24. What instrument established the African Court of Human and Peoples Rights? What jurisdiction does the Court have? Is it operational? The African Court of Human and Peoples Rights was established by African Charter of Human and Peoples Rights (African International Courts and Tribunals n. d.). The Court has the competence to take final and binding decisions on human rights violations perpetrated by AU Member States. The competence of the African Court on Human and Peoples Rights is based on its jurisdiction and the law that it will apply when exercising this jurisdiction (African Court on Human and Peoples Rights n. d.).The Protocol to the African Charter on Human and Peoples Rights Establishing the ACHPR entered into force on January 25, 2004 upon its ratification by fifteen member states. The statute of the ACHPR has not yet been promulgated and a seat for the court has yet to be determined, therefore much of the data regarding its functioning is not yet available (African International Courts and Tribunals n. d.). But the main functions of the Court has been set up, As mentioned above The Court has the competence to take final and binding decisions on human rights violations perpetrated by AU Member States (African Court on Human and Peoples Rights n. d.). All together one can say that it is operational but not all of its functions have been set up. 25. When was the Arab League established? List its current membership. Why was Egypts membership suspended in 1979? What happened as a result? When was Egypt readmitted? Arab League was established in 1945. The current members are 22 countries: Algeria, Bahrain, Comoros, Djibouti, Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco, Oman, Palestine, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Somalia, Sudan, Syria, Tunisia, United Arab Emirates, and Yemen (Al-bab n. d.). The membership of Egypt was stopped, because in 1979 Egypt signed a peace treaty with Israel. As a result the headquarters was moved from Cairo to Tunis. Egypt was readmitted to the league in 1989 and the leagues headquarters was moved back to Cairo (Pan Arab n. d.). Bibliography Books Donnelly J 2003, Universal Human Rights in theory and practice, 2nd edn, Cornell University Press, New York, USA. Freeman M 2002, Human Rights, Polity Press, Cambridge, UK Lauren P G 2003, The evolution of international human rights: visions seen, 2nd edn, University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia, USA. Electronic Sources African International Courts and Tribunals (n. d.) The African Court on Human and Peoples Rights. Available at: http://www.aict-ctia.org/courts_conti/achpr/achpr_home.html (Accessed: 15 November 2009) African Court on Human and Peoples Rights (n. d.) General information. Available at: http://www.african-court.org/en/court/mandate/general-information/ (Accessed: 15 November 2009 ) African Commission on Human and Peoples Rights (2009) Status on Submission of State Initial/Periodic Reports to the African Commission. Available at: http://www.achpr.org/english/_info/statereport_considered_en.html (Accessed: 16 November 2009) African Commission on Human and Peoples Rights (2009) Peoples Democratic Republic of Algeria. African Charter on Human and Peoples Rights, Third and fourth periodical reports, 2006. Available at: http://www.achpr.org/english/state_reports/Algeria/Algeria%20report_eng.pdf (Accessed: 16 November 2009 ) Articles by Brian Whitaker (n. d.) The League of Arab States. Available at: http://www.al-bab.com/Arab/docs/league.htm (Accessed: 15 November 2009) Bayefsky (n.d.) the United Nations Human Rights Treaties. Available at: http://www.bayefsky.com/pdf/argentina_t2_cedaw.pdf (Accessed: 16 November) Centre on Law Globalization (n. d.), Human Rights Fail During the Cold War. Available at: http://clg.portalxm.com/library/keytext.cfm?keytext_id=121 (Accessed 18 November) Council of Europe (2009), European Convention for the Prevention of Torture and Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment 26 November 1987. Available at: http://www.cpt.coe.int/EN/documents/ecpt.htm (Accessed 18 November) Council of Europe (2009), Complete list of the Council of Europes treaties. Available at: http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/Commun/ListeTraites.asp?CM=8CL=ENG (Accessed: 16 November) Council of Europe (2009), Council of Europe in brief. Available at: http://www.coe.int/aboutCoe/index.asp?page=47pays1europel=en (Accessed: 16 November) Enable (2007), Rights and Dignity of Persons with Disabilities,. Available at: http://www.un.org/esa/socdev/enable/rights/adhoccom.htm (Accessed: 18 November) European Court of Human Rights (2009), Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms as amended by Protocol No. 11. Available at: http://www.echr.coe.int/NR/rdonlyres/D5CC24A7-DC13-4318-B457-5C9014916D7A/0/EnglishAnglais.pdf (Accessed: 16 November) Human Rights Watch (2009), Special Comment: A Human Rights Perspective on Segregating the Mentally Ill. Available at: http://www.hrw.org/en/news/2009/05/18/special-comment-human-rights-perspective-segregating-mentally-ill (Accessed 18 November) Inter-American Commission on Human Rights (n.d.), American Convention on Human Rights 22 November 1969. Available at: http://www.cidh.org/Basicos/English/Basic3.American%20Convention.htm (Accessed: 16 November) Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Belarus (2009),International organizations. Available at: http://www.mfa.gov.by/en/multilateral/int_org/ref/e02a9ab26c54c943.html (Accessed: 16 November) New York University of Law (2009), Journal of International law and politics (Volume 24). Available at: http://www1.law.nyu.edu/journals/jilp/issues/24/24_2_Sullivan.html (Accessed 18 November) Pan Arab (n. d.) Members of the Arab League. Available at: http://www.arabji.com/ArabGovt/ArabLeague.htm (Accessed: 15 November 2009) The Secretariat for Legal Affairs (n.d.), American Convention on Human Rights â€Å"Pact Of San Jose, Costa Rica† 22 November 1969. Available at: http://www.oas.org/Juridico/english/Sigs/b-32.html#Trinidad%20and%20Tobago (Accessed: 16 November) The Secretariat for Legal Affairs (n.d.), Inter-American Convention on the Forced Disappearance of Persons 09 June 1994. Available at: http://www.oas.org/juridico/English/sigs/a-60.html (Accessed: 16 November) United Nations Human Rights (2009), Special Rapporteur on trafficking in persons, especially in women and children. Available at: http://www2.ohchr.org/english/issues/trafficking/index.htm (Accessed: 16 November) United Nations Human Rights, Convention on the Rights of the Child. Available at: http://www2.ohchr.org/english/law/crc.htm (Accessed: 18 November) United Nations Radio (2009), Finland and Indonesia undergo human rights review. Available at: http://www.unmultimedia.org/radio/english/detail/37298.html (Accessed: 18 November) United Nations Human Rights (2009), International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. Available at: http://www2.ohchr.org/english/law/ccpr.htm (Accessed: 18 November) UNICEF (2009), Convention on the Rights of the Child. Available at: http://www.unicef.org/crc/index_30229.html (Accessed: 18 November) UN (2009), Human Rights at your Fingertips. Available at: http://www.un.org/rights/50/game.htm#28 (Accessed: 18 November) University of Minnesota (2009), Human rights Library. Available at: http://www1.umn.edu/humanrts/instree/b4ccprp1.htm (Accessed: 18 November) 60th Anniversary Universal Declaration of Human Rights (2008), Universal Declaration of Human Rights: 1948-2008. Available at: http://www.un.org/events/humanrights/udhr60/index.shtml (Accessed: 18 November)

Sectional Conflics in Early America Essay -- essays research papers

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The sectional conflicts within the United States affected numerous domestic polices and even caused, in part, Andrew Jackson’s election. Andrew Jackson’s election was greatly affected by sectional differences because he represented only a portion of the United States, yet it was the portion with a majority of Electoral College votes. The sectional differences of the United States caused a protective tariff to be levied. The Missouri compromise was also affected by the differences between various differences between the divisions of the United States. Even Texas was affected by the sectional differences of the United States. The political divisions of the United States greatly affected politics between the years of 1828-1837.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Andrew Jackson’s election was caused, in part, by the sectional differences between the north and the west and south. Andrew Jackson was representative of the west and south in his virtues and views on national policy prior to entering office. He was for no tariffs and states rights in general. This meant that the majority of southern and western states supported him and allowed him to win a majority vote in the Electoral College. While his election was effected by sectional differences, his policies were not so much affected because of a rapid turn around to a federalist look of government and supporting the north in most every aspect. Andrew Jackson’s election, if not presidency, was greatly ...

Essay --

Culture can be defined as â€Å"The collective programming of the mind which distinguishes members of one human group from another† (Hofstede, 1991) Culture brings significant differences in the way of working, communicating, addressing relationships and so, it can positively or negatively affect the work environment. The following theories are used to identify and describe the cultural profile of a country: 1. Low and high context cultures (Hall, 1977) According to the anthropologist Edward T.Hall (1977), there are two types of national culture: â€Å"low context† culture and â€Å"high context† culture. Each of them has a specific communication that will have an impact on the way people interact within an organization. Low-context culture: France Low-context culture refers to a direct style of communication based on explicit messages. As words carry most of the information, content and verbal explanations are really important. Indeed, the interpretation relies on what is said or written, regardless of the context. For example, in the French work environment, agreements are written and usually well detailed, work is expected before friendship and credibility is earned due to performance/ efficient management of time. The impact that this may have on an organization is the reinforcement of individualism, the increase of competition and pressure, the development of a feeling of loneliness which can sometimes lead to suicides. High-context culture: Colombia High-context culture refers to a more indirect style of communication. The message’s interpretation is characterized by contextual clues such as nature of relationship, time, and situation. The verbal part of a message contained less information than the written part but what is left uns... ...curity and minimise risks whereas a low uncertainty avoidance society hasn’t. Both France (86) and Colombia (80) have high uncertainty avoidance, in other words it means that they try to find mechanisms and rules to avoid ambiguity. In consequences, lack of expertise / planning or change in policies would lead to stressful situations. â€Æ' Short vs. long term orientation (LTO): The extent of which a culture focus on time. In a long term oriented society, firms and people give importance on planning on years and decades to achieve long term success and delayed gratification of their material, social and emotional needs whereas in a short term society they don’t. With a score of 39, France seems to have a short term orientation: quick results by quarter and hard work on a short term period have great importance. Colombian orientation is still undefined for the moment.

Trinculo and Stephano of Shakespeares Tempest :: Tempest essays

Trinculo and Stephano of Shakespeare's Tempest Trinculo and Stephano though not major characters in William Shakespeare's The Tempest, serve a large role in the story itself. They mainly serve as the story's comic relief and they also contribute to demonstrating to the audience how evil has no boundaries. Much of the play revolves around Prospero's contempt for everyone who betrayed him, and Prospero forces the conspirators to a remote island. Trinculo and Stephano had nothing to do with the plot against Prospero, but end up being dragged along with the conspirators. Their parts were small but were probably the most interesting in the story. Trinculo and Stephano were primarily used for comic relief. Comic relief is very important because the story must be able to keep the audience interested. What better to make someone laugh than a pair of drunk servants. During the duration of the story their drunkenness causes them to do things that normally they wouldn't do. They blindly attempt to take on Prospero, a powerful sorcerer and scheme how to defeat and kill him. Who in their sober mind take on an all powerful sorcerer? This is quite amusing because it shows us how incredibly foolish we act when we are drunk. Of course their attempt to take on Prospero proves to be futile, instead they play dress up with his cloaks and when Prospero shows up, Stephano and Trinculo run for their lives and leave Calaban behind carrying the clothes they attempted to steal. Trinculo and Stephano were also quite amusing by being drunk throughout the entire story, they even stated that they wouldn't drink anything else until the wine ran out. "Tell not me. When the butt is out, we will drink a drop of water, not a drop before."(Tempest 288) Trinculo and Stephano also contribute to the play the idea that evil in men shows no boundaries. While Antonio and Ferdinand are making a plot to kill the King, Alonso, for power, Trinculo and Stephano are doing the same towards Prospero. They were enchanted by the story told by Calaban that they would become in charge of the island once Prospero was disposed of. Another display of their lack to purity comes in the speech by Trinculo on finding the resting Calaban. Trinculo stated that if he were back home that he would have people pay to see Calaban. "Were I in England now, as I once was, and had but this fish painted, not a holiday Trinculo and Stephano of Shakespeare's Tempest :: Tempest essays Trinculo and Stephano of Shakespeare's Tempest Trinculo and Stephano though not major characters in William Shakespeare's The Tempest, serve a large role in the story itself. They mainly serve as the story's comic relief and they also contribute to demonstrating to the audience how evil has no boundaries. Much of the play revolves around Prospero's contempt for everyone who betrayed him, and Prospero forces the conspirators to a remote island. Trinculo and Stephano had nothing to do with the plot against Prospero, but end up being dragged along with the conspirators. Their parts were small but were probably the most interesting in the story. Trinculo and Stephano were primarily used for comic relief. Comic relief is very important because the story must be able to keep the audience interested. What better to make someone laugh than a pair of drunk servants. During the duration of the story their drunkenness causes them to do things that normally they wouldn't do. They blindly attempt to take on Prospero, a powerful sorcerer and scheme how to defeat and kill him. Who in their sober mind take on an all powerful sorcerer? This is quite amusing because it shows us how incredibly foolish we act when we are drunk. Of course their attempt to take on Prospero proves to be futile, instead they play dress up with his cloaks and when Prospero shows up, Stephano and Trinculo run for their lives and leave Calaban behind carrying the clothes they attempted to steal. Trinculo and Stephano were also quite amusing by being drunk throughout the entire story, they even stated that they wouldn't drink anything else until the wine ran out. "Tell not me. When the butt is out, we will drink a drop of water, not a drop before."(Tempest 288) Trinculo and Stephano also contribute to the play the idea that evil in men shows no boundaries. While Antonio and Ferdinand are making a plot to kill the King, Alonso, for power, Trinculo and Stephano are doing the same towards Prospero. They were enchanted by the story told by Calaban that they would become in charge of the island once Prospero was disposed of. Another display of their lack to purity comes in the speech by Trinculo on finding the resting Calaban. Trinculo stated that if he were back home that he would have people pay to see Calaban. "Were I in England now, as I once was, and had but this fish painted, not a holiday

Product Life Cycle Essay

Definition: Products come and go. A company’s challenge is to hold on to its customers longer than it holds on to its products. It needs to watch the market life cycle and the customer life cycle more than the product life cycle. Someone at Ford realized this: â€Å"If we’re not customer driven, our cars won’t be either.† One selects marketing tools that are appropriate to the stage of the product’s life cycle. For example, advertising and publicity will produce the biggest payoff in the introduction stage of a product; their job is to build consumer awareness and interest. Sales promotions and personal selling grow more important during a product’s maturity stage. Personal selling can strengthen customers’ comprehension of your product’s advantages and their conviction that the offering is worthwhile. Product Development and Life-Cycle Strategies: In the face of changing customer needs, technologies and competition, product innovation or the development of new products has become vital to a company’s survival. Introducing new products, however, is not sufficient. The firm must also know how to manage the new product as it goes through its life cycle: that is, from its birth, through growth and maturity, to eventual demise as newer products come along that better serve consumer needs. This product life cycle presents two principal challenges. First, because all products eventually decline, the firm must find new products to replace ageing ones (the problem of new-product development). Second, the firm must understand how its products age and adapt its marketing strategies as products pass through life-cycle stages (the problem of product life-cycle, strategies’). We therefore look initially at the problem of finding and developing new products, and then at the challenge of managing them successfully over their life cycles. Innovation and New-Product Development: Given the rapid changes in taste, technology and competition, a company cannot rely solely on its existing products to sustain growth or to maintain  profitability. The firm can hope to maintain market and profit performance only by continuous product innovation. Product innovation encompasses a variety of product development activities – product improvement, development of entirely new ones, and extensions that increase the range or number of lines of product the firm can offer. Product innovations are not to be confused with inventions. The latter are a new technology or product which may or may not deliver benefits to customers. An innovation is defined as an idea, product or piece of technology that has been developed and marketed to customers ‘who perceive it as novel or new. We may call it a process of identifying, creating and delivering new-product values or benefits that were not offered before in the marketplace. In this chapter we look specifically at new products as opposed to value creation through marketing actions (such as product/brand repositioning, segmentation of current markets). We also need to distinguish between obtaining new products through acquisition – by buying a whole company, a patent or a licence to produce someone else’s product – and through new-product development in the company’s own research and development department. As the costs of developing and introducing major new products have climbed, many large companies have decided to acquire existing brands rather than to create new ones. Other firms have saved money by copying competitors’ brands or by reviving old brands. These routes can contribute to a firm’s growth and have both advantages and limitations. In this chapter, we are mainly concerned with how businesses create and market new products. By new products we mean original products, product improvements, pnxhict modifications and new brands that the firm develops through its own research and development efforts. Risks and Returns Jri Innovation Innovation can be very risky for a number of reasons: 1. New-product development is an expensive affair – it cost Tate & Lyle around  £150 million to develop a new sugar substitute; pharmaceutical firms spend an average of . £100-50 million to develop a new drug; while developing a super-jumbo project could cost billions. 2. New-product development takes time. Although companies can dramatically shorten their development time, in many industries, such as  Pharmaceuticals, biotechnology, aerospace and food, new-product development cycles can be as long as 10-15 years. The uncertainty and unpredictability of market environments further raise the risks of commercialization. Roots had to withdraw Manoplex, a heart drug, less than a year after its launch in the United Kingdom, after a trial on 3,000 patients in the United States and Scandinavia suggested an adverse effect on patient survival. The pharmaeeudeals division lost about  £200 million on the drug, which cost nearly  £100 million to develop over a period of 12 years, and about S20 million was spent on promoting and marketing it. 3. Unexpected delays in development are also a problem. History is littered with grand pioneering engineering projects which have failed to satisfy the original expectations of bankers, investors and politicians. The Seikan rail tunnel, connecting the island of Hokkaido to mainland Japan, was completed 14 years late and billions of pounds over budget; the S10 billion cost of the Channel tunnel, which opened on 6 May ] 994, a year later than originally planned, is more than double the  £4,8 billion forecast in 1987. 4. The new-product success record is not encouraging either. New products continue to fail at a disturbing rate. One recent study estimated that new consumer packaged goods (consisting mostly of line extensions) fail at a rate of 80 per cent. The same high failure rate appears to afflict new financial products and services, such as credit cards, insurance plans and brokerage services. Another study found that about 33 per cent of new industrial products fail at launch. Despite the risks, firms that learn to innovate well become less vulnerable to attacks by new entrants which discover new ways of delivering added values, benefits and solutions to customers’ problems.