Zambezi Valley :: essays research papers

Zambezi Valley     If the average person was asked about the Zambezi Valley, how manywould actually hire anything to say? From all the places I have been in theworld, the Zambezi Valley stands out most in my mind. The mighty Zambezi Riverforms the border between Zimbabwe and Zambia as they lie on the maps in ourlibraries. Few throng have been graced the opportunity to be in the presence ofthis majestic silver python as it carves a bearing at the crust of our earth. Thereis no better way to experience this natural wonder than by organizing anexpedition and venturing into the unknown wilderness of the "Dark Continent" formemories that will last you a lifetime. Unfortunately these days you have to doit through a Safari company that will charge you an arm and a leg for a weeklong tour, only shaving the surface and not taking you into the darkest ofAfrica of which you have read in so many adventure novels. Traveling is a verystimulating hobby, but Africa is dowery of me.     Darkness everyplacecame all as Mother Earth turned her back on the center ofour solar system. In the heart of Africa everything is sleeping, or so you bemeant to think. The ruler of that kingdom is patrolling his territory inabsolute silence. His bushy black mane casts a shadow in the pale moonlight.Eyes like those of an eagle penetrate the darkest shadows of the bush. The softgray pads of his paws tread on the game path barely leaving any evidence ofhis presence. The great beast strides graciously along before disappearing intoblack night. He will soon find either a dense thicket or some tall overawegrass swaying back and forth on the rhythm of the early morning breeze where hecan lay his giant body down and pee-pee some rest. Stars begin to fade as amysterious yellow glow takes their place in the East. The bush is coming tolife. Birds are singing their songs of joyfulness and hippos are snorting out of purepleasure for a new day has co me. This will be a day where the fight for survivaltakes over like an uncontrollable urge, nevertheless, little is known as to whoshould be feared. Should it be the predators lurking around, wanting to filltheir own stomachs, or will it be the natives searching for aliment in the land onwhich they have lived for thousands of years. Remember that this is done in aneffort to rise above the ever present poverty.

Mark Twain a Racist? Absolutely not! Essays -- Literary Analysis

Celebrating its 135th anniversary this year, Mark Twains The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn is a classic of American literature and is call for by millions across the nation every year. However, many assume that the book promotes and endorses the heinous act of racism. In their attacks on the classic, many of the books critics usage evidence such as the use of the n-word 211 times (Powers, 2010) and the novels repeated inferior depiction of African-Americans. Many supporters of the novel, though, hail it for being so controversial. They claim that the dialogue started when discussing the book is a great chance for students to broaden their views on many controversial topics. As Harris puts it (2000), If it isnt a dangerous book, there really is no reason for anybody to read it or teach it. Mark Twains The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn unquestionably does not promote racism, and genuinely serves to question the very idea of racism itself, as betokenn by Twains use of realism, the use of a child narrator, and the authors deliberate intention to criticize the act of slavery and racism.Throughout Huck Finn, Mark Twain employs realism to accurately portray life along the antebellum Mississippi River. Merriam-Webster defines realism as the theory or practice of fidelity in art and literature to nature or to real life and to accurate representation without idealization. Throughout the novel, Twain uses realism to show readers how life was and how blacks were treated. Many critics of the book criticize the language used in the book. As Powers puts it (2010), The controversy exploded in 1957, when the National Association for the Advancement of biased People condemned its 211 uses of the n-word, the infamous epithet for African ... ...-old boy show them the true path of equality and fairness. Twains The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn clearly does not promote racism, and actually defames it, and the universal lessons taught in the book can still be applied t oday. Works CitedCamfield, G. (2005). Race. Retrieved from http//dig.lib.niu.edu/ twosome/race.htmlHarris, E. (2000, September 26). huck finn still pushes buttons, professor says. Retrieved from http//www.freedomforum.org/templates/document.asp?documentID=3637Powers, M. (2010, May 05). Mark twains adventures of huckleberry finn. Retrieved from http//www.america.gov/st/peopleplace-english/2010/May/20100505151725naneerg0.2608759.htmlSalwen, P. (Unknown). The quotable mark twain . Retrieved from http//salwen.com/mtquotes.htmlTwain, M. (1986). The adventues of huckleberry finn. New York, NY Penguin Books Ltd.

Free Much Ado About Nothing Essays: Relationships :: Much Ado About Nothing Essays

such(prenominal) Ado About Nothing Relationships Shakespeare In Much Ado About Nothing, most of the characters had interesting relationships with each other. For eccentric, Hero and Claudio, were deeply in love. Also, Don Juan, and Don John were fighting with each other. Another example was the close friendship between Benedick, Claudio, and Don Juan. But the relationship between Benedick and Beatrice was different than the others. In their relationship, they hated each other, that brought them together. Their personalities were so similar, that it made them ramble of each other, but the similarities in their personalities is also what brought them together. Benedick was a smart, good-looking, and funny guy. He was very witty, and always had a response to anyones comments. For example, when he was talking to Beatrice, he always had a comment to finish of the conversation. He also didnt analogous the idea of marriage. Benedick thought that marriage led to the trapping of men. W hen he perceive to the highest degree Claudio getting married, Benedick thought that Claudio was crazy, because Benedick felt that marriage was going to change the way Claudio lived. Benedick was also very stubborn. He neer wanted to give into other peoples ideas, and that was why he didnt want to give into the idea that marriage could be a good thing in a persons life. Beatrice was a character very similar to Benedick. She was a very independent person, and didnt want to rely on anyone for support. She also was very smart. She enjoyed reading poetry, and thought about things a lot. She also was against marriage. During one conversation, she even said that she would rather die than get married. Another characteristic of Beatrice was that she was very emotional. She often changed her mood all of a sudden for no apparent reason. Also, Beatrice kept many of her feelings inside her. Sometimes she would be angry but wouldnt show it,because she always had to feel strong, and look lik e she didnt need anyone. The traits and characteristics of Beatrice and Benedick were what brought them together, and also what separated them. Beatrice and Benedick were separated because, they always thought that they had to be independent, and not need each other. Another factor that kept them from coming together was that they always fought with each other. In trying to seem strong, they were actually fighting with each other, and hurting each others feelings.

Becoming a Better Reader Essay -- Education Reading Academics

Reading is believed by some academia to be the most important activity that a student could do to go ahead in academic pursuit. Some seek form of addressed that many people take information for granted in their developmental stage. Due to this fact, few learners cannot exact properly because they claim they do not enjoy reading. In my observation, not only is effective reading important but to read with comprehension (recall of read text) and for pleasure. The constant affaire with reading for pleasure might sensitize the desire to read. Controlled studies for people with specific learning disabilities recommend SQ4R reading strategy to support people to learn how to read. SQ4R could be considered as a versatile literacy strategy that engrosses students in the processing of information prior to reading, during reading and after reading. It could be used in all cogitation areas that consider content materials critically. This applies to all types of texts and cut across all so urces of information. SQ4R might lead to flexible reading pattern. Flexibility in reading is extremely precise important. It is crucial to examine flexible reading as, reading different types of materials. Materials like articles, novel, periodic, journals, and newspapers could build different strategies and approach that would be adapted to different reading styles. SQ4R rule is accepted to have the propensity to improve comprehension and academic grades. It could also help students make meaning from text in the following ways. Using the SQ4R strategies prior to reading allow for helps to preview texts and establish the reading purpose. The more refine the purpose of investigation is the better the depth of research. SQ4R strategies while reading help to monitor and ... ...lay the importance of SQ4R. They may either use it unconsciously and claimed they dont use it. The good thing about the SQ4R reading system is that it gives a better understanding of academic material. It also helps to improve memory. A student is properly geared to focus on the specific area of research by using the Q-question strategy. The R which stand for reflect/relate helps to bridge the gap of old and new information in the memory. A student will always have an accurate fact and current in line with the given area of reasoning. In the end reading will encourage students to read material for both academic reason and for pleasure.BibliographyForsyth, K. H. (2000). The Effect of self-Reference on learning and Retention. Teaching of psychology , p.269. Hulme, c., & Snowling, m. (1994). Reading Development and Dyslexia. London Whurr publishers Ltd.

Missionaries in Pre-Colonial and Early Colonial Nigeria Essay -- Colon

Missionaries in Pre-Colonial and Early Colonial NigeriaIn any study of colonial Nigeria, the groundwork accomplished by the missionaries in pre-colonial days must be a central concern. They were instrumental in setting the scene which would meet the colonists when they started arriving. Missionaries were used by the colonial power as an avant garde, to expand into new regions, a fact keenly displayed by Achebe in Things Fall Apart. For many Nigerians, missionaries were the first Europeans with whom they came into contact. The missionaries first made their presence felt through with(predicate) their work in abolishing the slave trade. As Crowder notes, they took the emphasis a look from the human products of Africa in a bid to use more fully her abundant natural resources. The overall, and idealistic, purpose was to promote a more healthy and mutually beneficial trade between Africa and Europe. Sir Thomas Fo well Buxton once put forward the argument that the only way to save Africa from the evils of the slave trade ... would be call out its own natural resources(Crowder, The Story of Nigeria, 111). Right from the outset, there was both a mercenary and ghostly context to all missionary work in Nigeria. If anything, it could be argued that initially, the commercial aspect was more pressing than the religious, due the urgent need to find a quick substitute for trading slaves so that the traders would not feel their profit was at stake. Outcry in England against the horrors of the slave trade reached unprecedented levels. Never onwards had there been such unanimous public support over a single issue. Cheap pamphlets and tracts were sold in abundance, meaning that the public was fairly well informed in matters such as the cramped and pes... ...y consulted their oracle. Yet, the underlying forces at work behind the missions, as well as their inextricable links with commercial activities should never be overlooked. From the outset, the missions were seen as ideal vehicles for gaining the trust and confidence of the tribal leaders, before the real monied interest moved in. It could argued that the missions were one part of the ramble of business and economics that starting to turn in Nigeria, while a substitute for slaves was sought. The humanitarian touch they seemed to bring disguised these motives behind a facade of peaceful and beneficent civilisation. It would be naive to assume that the missionaries were innocently unaware of the drastic consequences their opening of the African heartland would bring. In this sense they must, at least in part, be held answerable for the colonial predicament of Nigeria.

Missionaries in Pre-Colonial and Early Colonial Nigeria Essay -- Colon

Missionaries in Pre-Colonial and Early Colonial NigeriaIn any study of colonial Nigeria, the root accomplished by the missionaries in pre-colonial days must be a central concern. They were instrumental in setting the scene which would meet the colonists when they started arriving. Missionaries were used by the colonial power as an avant garde, to expand into new regions, a fact keenly displayed by Achebe in Things Fall Apart. For many Nigerians, missionaries were the first Europeans with whom they came into contact. The missionaries first make their presence felt through their work in abolishing the slave bargain. As Crowder notes, they took the emphasis away from the human products of Africa in a bid to use more amply her abundant natural resources. The overall, and idealistic, aim was to promote a more healthy and mutually beneficial trade between Africa and Europe. Sir Thomas Fowell Buxton once put earlier the argument that the only way to save Africa from the evils of the sla ve trade ... would be call out its own natural resources(Crowder, The Story of Nigeria, 111). Right from the outset, there was both a commercial and religious context to all missionary work in Nigeria. If anything, it could be argued that initially, the commercial aspect was more pressing than the religious, due the urgent need to find a quick substitute for trading slaves so that the traders would not feel their profit was at stake. Outcry in England against the horrors of the slave trade reached unprecedented levels. Never before had there been such unanimous public support over a single issue. Cheap pamphlets and tracts were sold in abundance, center that the public was fairly well informed in matters such as the cramped and pes... ...y consulted their oracle. Yet, the underlying forces at work behind the missions, as well as their inextricable links with commercial activities should never be overlooked. From the outset, the missions were seen as ideal vehicles for gaining the trust and confidence of the tribal leaders, before the real monied interest travel in. It could argued that the missions were one part of the wheel of business and economics that starting to turn in Nigeria, while a substitute for slaves was sought. The humanitarian touch they seemed to bring disguised these motives behind a facade of peaceful and beneficent civilisation. It would be naive to assume that the missionaries were innocently unaware of the drastic consequences their opening of the African heartland would bring. In this moxie they must, at least in part, be held answerable for the colonial predicament of Nigeria.

Factors that affected the health and the well being of people during the 19th and 20th Century’s

Poor lot lived in Small houses in cramped streets. These homes would share toilet facilities, have open sewers and would be susceptible to damp. Overcrowding was alike a major departure. The population of Britain virtually doubled between 1801 and 1851 to about 18,000,000 largely as a result of an increased birth-rate and a lowered fatality rate rate. This rapid growth meant that there were far fewer dwellings than the numbered needed. A report from the London statistical society states that in 1847 a street in St Giles where, in 1841, 27 houses with an average of 5 rooms had 655 occupants, by 1847 the same houses contained 1,095 people.Such dwellings lacked light and space and had no fresh water or any separate means of refuse disposal. The houses were likely to be adjacent to open sewers and piles or rotting animals and vegetable waste. (Referenced from The health of adult Britain, 1841-1994) on the whole these factors contributed to the poor health and death rate of the peop le alert in the 1800s. As a result human racey people died due to the diseases which came about during this conviction, the over crowding issue became a breeding ground for any disease and it spread like wildfire within a house or even a street and would chop-chop over watch the people.These conditions were very unsuitable and resulted in a high death rate, combined with the poor sanitation and poor waste disposal living in these times was extremely horrific.I cannot see many, if any positive factors about these living conditions it was horrid and very hard to live like this. more(prenominal) people died due to the lack of hygiene and sanitation. Perhaps one positive was that no one was ever lonely but saying that, you never got time to yourself either.Read in any case Six Dimensions of Health WorksheetHEALTHThe main issues affecting this area were disease.Such diseases were* Smallpox* Cholera* Influenza* Typhus* Typhoid* terbiumDisease affected everyone, regardless of cl ass or background. As there were no immunisations available in this time, many millions of people died, worldwide.Smallpox was one of the the worst, killing between 300-500 million people during the 20th degree centigrade.Cholera was as well extremely common and was caused by drinking unclean water and eating undercooked fish. Due to such(prenominal) poor sanitation this disease spread rapidly, drinking contaminated water, which people had no choice about and also it was carried in faeces, which in the 18th Century was literally just thrown onto the streets and joined the drinking water that people used. Typhoid was some other illness spread in the same way.As the NHS didnt come in until 1950 so many people suffered from these diseases and it killed so many. The living conditions that people lived in during this time period, contributed almost entirely to the wild spread of disease. The poor sanitation as well as the over crowdedness of the homes was just what was needed for the disease to spread. It was a horrible time to live in. Luckily though it did start to ameliorate between 1990-1950, this was due to the new laws that were introduced.HEALTH PROVISIONPre 1800s there really wasnt any health provisions in place at all, yes there was infirmary and such like but nurses werent trained and the conditions of these hospitals very unhealthy.When health provisions did come, it was a very positive thing, it introduced the need for nurse and doctor training and also it is when anaesthetics and vaccines were introduced.Nitrous oxide was often used as an anaesthetic but the effects often wore of before the surgery was complete. In 1847 Chloroform was eventually used kinda which musical accompaniment patients asleep longer. Doctors also used unclean, un-sterile equipment and many people died from blood poisoning.Vaccines were introduced and the first one was the Small pox vaccine, discovered by Edward Jenner in 1789, it was to be nearly another 100 years before another vaccine was found. 1798 smallpox inoculation introduced 1880 Cholera vaccination introduced 1881 Anthrax vaccination introduced 1885 Rabies vaccination introduced 1896 Typhoid vaccination introduced 1906 Tuberculosis vaccination introduced 1913 Diphtheria vaccination introduced 1927 Tetanus vaccination introduced 1952 Whooping cough vaccination introduced 1954 Polio vaccination introduced 1964 Measles vaccination introducedDuring this period Stethoscopes were also invented. Rene Theophile Hyacithe Laennec, a pupil from Paris invented the stethoscope ion 1816. To start with the stethoscope was a simple wooden cylinder, about 9 inches long with a single earpiece.In 1895 a man called Willhelm Rontgen discovered the X-ray. This gave doctors expertise in locating broken bones and treating them and also giving clinical and pathological descriptions of a range of pulmonary ailments like Bronchitis, pneumonia and TB.The advances in medicine during this time was life saving. It gave people vaccines to try to rid them and the country of horrible disease. Both animals and people could now live longer and healthier lives as a result of these vaccines and medical advances.WORKChildren were sent out to work from a young age. They were do to work to help support their families. Many realise just pennies by becoming chimney sweeps or working on the streets running errands. The industrial revolution resulted in many children being employed in large factories and were often responsible for operating dangerous machinery. Childrens health suffered due to this as soot from the chimneys gave them chest complaints and many children became seriously injured as a result of operating such dangerous machines. Many other children worked as servants in the homes of the rich, in the 1850s one in nine of all female children over the age of 10, worked in domestic service. (Referenced from ourwardfamily.com)Womens rolesIn the early 1800s, a married woman had one task to stay home al l day and keep the home for her husband. If she was a mother, she would be solely responsible for the childrens raising and wellness. They were also responsible for cooking and cleaning.Other women worked as servants or slaves helping out another wife with her household duties, or sometimes acting as a substitute if there was no wife.Many women also took on mens jobs, such as blacksmiths, barbers and printers and once women were employed in factories, this was a main role. The factory employer hired women and children as they were cheaper to employ.Women were working more so spending a lot more time away from the family home.SOCIAL POLICYSocial policy consisted of many laws that came into effect during this time. These included-1802 Factory act was passed,1842 Coal mine act. No girls, women or boys under the age of 10 were to go underground.1848 First public health act. 1975 act updated.1870 Education act. 2000 districts to have schools and the school board is born.1871 Local g overnment established.1875 artisan dwelling improvements bill. This gave local authorities power to pull down slums and erect good houses.The poor law was the system for the provision of social security from the sixteenth century up until the establishment of the Welfare State in the 20th Century.The original Poor law act of 1601 stated that* to board out (making a payment to families wiling to except them) those young children who were orphaned or whose parents could not maintain them* to provide materials to set the poor on work* to offer relief to people who were ineffectual to work mainly those who were lame, old, blind and impotent* the putting out of children to be apprentices (referenced from wikpedia.org)The education act was another great act, it meant that children now had to go to school and could not be forced into work. This was a good law but it also made the poorer families poorer as the children were not bringing in a wage individually week.All the above laws were positive. They brought major changes for families and also ensured that people had money and children had education.The factory act was the most beneficial to children. It was reviewed and changes were made 4 times. The original act express that children could not work more than 12 hours a day and then this was reviewed and in 1844 the hours of work for children was not to exceed 6 1/2 hours a day. Children under the age of nine were also not allowed to work and by 1844 certificates of age had to be given for children.Children benefited greatly from these acts, education at last for them was greatly beneficial, although this kept them from working and bringing in an income. The public health act was essential to combat illness and when this was passed it meant the end to dirty water in the center field of streets, drains and sewers were now inplace.Generally the whole of the era was a sad time. Not many positive outcomes could be had but some got through. The introduction of vacc ines and general laws benefited these people greatly and indeed stopped the mass spread of disease and infections.The new laws that came into place saved many children lives by restricting working hours and sending them to school.All the above named factors had a massive part in the state of the health in the 1800s. It was a horrible time to live in but was made easier by the many rules and changes that came into place.

Human Tendencies, Montessori

Throughout history, universe impart relied on their ingenuity and adaptability for survival. Regardless of race, country, or culture, peck follow similar patterns of exploration, inventiveness, and creativity. After years of c atomic number 18ful observation, Maria Montessori was able to identify the importance of tendencies that compel gracious beings to construct and refine the world somewhat them.The practical application of the Montessori Method is based on human tendencies to look, move, sh atomic number 18 with a group, to be autarkic and make decisions, create clubhouse, develop self-control, abstract ideas from experience, wasting disease the creative imagination, work hard, repeat, concentrate, and perfect angiotensin converting enzymes efforts. Tendencies are important to every human being as it draws us to adapt and survive low contrastive circumstances. Therefore, it is necessary to know the definition of tendencies and its general characteristics. Definition of tendenciesWhat do we insure by the word tendency is predisposition to think, act, behave, or proceed in a particular elan, an inclining or contributing influence. In other words, tendencies draw human being to achieve some affaire and develop. According to Montessori these tendencies are innate. They are the root of our predispositions, or as named by Montessori in Formation of Man, our nebulae. Human Tendencies is a natural urge to do something and is developed doneout our development. It is beneficial to know and understand the basic human tendencies that we, as humans develop naturally.Every human being needs to find in the environment oxygen, food, water, love and protection in order to survive and then to develop, so we have to survive offshoot and then to progress. These tendencies suspensor us to become human. These are the miens in which we, humans are all similar. They unite us as a species and distinct humans from animals. There are certain basic factors which do not change. What whitethorn change is what is given to the mind. The Human Tendencies and Montessori Education Mario M. Montessori, AMI, pg. 6 We can see that tendencies do not change and human tendencies are hereditary. Everyone has the kindred tendencies, but the way we use them is differently. The tendencies lead us and children learn independently from the environment and adapt to any society.General characteristics Tendencies are universal and all human beings have them no matter where they are born in the world, irrespective of culture, nationality, race and religion. They are present in all human beings right from birth and as such described as inborn or inert and they last throughout life. They are unchanging in the way they function and have remained the same for different generations, but only modified to suit the environment man finds himself in. There are several tendencies and all working together and not in isolation, are interconnected. An important principle in The Absorbent Mind is that education starts from birth, so we must guard the childs psychic power in the first few years. The importance of tendencies for human being These tendencies are important for humankind and they need to be express full to be suitable for us to rifle and develop.These tendencies are present at all ages of our lives but some are stronger than others during different developmental periods. The tendencies likewise vary in the way and strength in which they appear in different people but they all exist in some form in every person. And it is these tendencies which guide our development and this one of the reasons why are important for the humankind. Tendencies serve to tending human beings survive and develop fully making something of them. Animals have instinct and are born carry out with everything they need to survive in an environment.The human beings have tendencies which drive them to explore, develop and adapt in order to survive whatever the environm ent is. Human beings have both strong-arm and psycho perspicuous needs. The physical needs for food, shelter and clothing, and the psychological need for security, love, art, music and culture. It is the tendencies that drive the humankind to look for and create those things that meet his physical and psychological needs from within his environment. Montessoris belief in the potential of every human being is grounded in the idea that the world can be changed for the better if education is adapted to he childs true nature instead of being limited to the transmission of academic knowledge. However we also need to recognise that as members of the human species, children are born with certain genetic traits or potentialities, unique to human beings, Montessori called these traits, human tendencies. These tendencies relate directly to human needs for example our need for food is linked with our tendency to explore. 1. Tendency for Exploration It is through act that exploration began. Pe ople learn from the discoveries they make or that which others before them made.They look slightly and make connections with things in their environment also by smelling and hearing. The child will have the natural urge to explore their environment they are in and are constantly learning from what they see and hear around them. The child is learning how to use their basic smacks as in see, taste, touch, hear and manipulate something or the other. In the first few months the child is learning how to move his arms and legs he is not very strong at this time his muscles are not developed yet and he just observes his surroundings. They imitate the actions of those around them.All the connexions from the brain at the birth, which has one hundred zillion neurons, are not yet made therefore they are waiting for being connected in the new environment. Even though we have an immense responsibility to provide the right environment because the child will trust the environment and he will t rust him to do things by himself. The child is an explorer. He needs to explore the world on a level that he is capable of learning from. The function of the Assistant to Infancy is to put the child in touch with the many aspects of the world around him which will help him classify his impression, build new skills and knowledge.The world is an exciting quad and the entire more so if the child is able to make his own discoveries more or less it. The Assistant will choose activities which may nurture his interest but be careful to help the child to point the discovery without actually making the discovery for him. That is all about the exploration. 2. Tendency for Order The human being must have order in his environment to be able to find his way back home after exploring his environment. The child requires from of order whenever he is exploring. This will help him in on many levels- if he wishes to carry out an activity successfully then order is required.Order and its extension in to exactness and precision will help him to gain clear and accurate impressions so that he may understand his world better. External order can help create a logical and orderly mind. We can observe in the small babies their love for order in their surroundings. They cannot practically live in disorder, they are so aware of it, thing which is not happen with the grown-up children. They will expect to find inclinations where they first perceived them and will go great lengths to put them back if they are out of place. 3. Tendency for OrientationThrough order we can build our orientation within our surroundings. The child needs some points of reference in the environment to orientate him and find things. And this means he can orient himself in his environment and to act with purpose. In his book, The Human Tendencies and Montessori Education Mario Montessori states If the security given by the sense of orientation is removed, it is not that one feels lost in a city, one feels lost in ones mind. pg 21, AMI pamphlet 1966 For a child, if something is usually hardened in a certain spot, he wants to find it there.If the order is taken away, then he becomes disoriented, lost and unable to function properly. 4. Tendency for communication To extend is the essence of our civilisation. This is what makes us different then other species. To have the ability to express oneself fully and accurately is a great gift. The more the child is helped in this area the more independent he can be. The child is able to interact, express thoughts and ideas with people in his environment through language. Prior to developing language, the muck up only could communicate by crying which meant the adult had to guess his needs.With language, the child is better clearly able to express his needs and thoughts and become more independent and secure. 5. Tendency for self-esteem Feeling good about oneself is one of the generally accepted criteria for good mental health. One of things that hel p children feel good about themselves comes from the fact that they need a lot of support, love and attention from the adults around them. 6. Tendency for work (movement) Since the child is in process of developing, movement plays a spanking part within his life. Even movement for a young child is work.The child creates the movement even before the moment of birth, he starts from his mothers womb, because he has a strong tendency for the movement. And the tendency for movement keeps the child active. Some of it can be reflexive movement like grasping an object hanging and controlled movement going here and there. Being on movement is co-ordinated i. e. where the body and mind working in harmony. At the moment of birth movement is amazing, the hands are very important. In the first few months babies start to develop head and trunk control. When lying on their tummy their hands are in position to help by pushing through the floor surface.The child then requires activities that are b oth purposeful and challenging, that will bring accredited work to his life. The child while engaged upon this type of activity will also be satisfying tendencies towards exactness, repetition, concentration, calculation and imitation while at the same time building a firm base for his creative imagination. 7. Tendency for group orientation The child knows that we are different from the animals or pets. He shows us that by crying at the beginning. He wants to belong to a group, especially with the closer ones- mother and family.The child makes sense of relationships and also learns the behaviour of that group i. e. the way they eat, speak, dress and the rules of how that place function i. e. gestures, words. And because he knows and he wants to become like adults around him is now coming the tendency for imitation. The basic skills of children are usually achieved through imitation, which is later modified by the child to suit his own personality and improved upon. For instance gre gariousness leads to imitation. Even with adults, the need to conform to the way of life around us so that we are accepted leads to the imitation of the values of that society

Phonetics as a Branch of Linguistics

GLOSSARY Academic port overly scientific style, a style of lingual communication hired in lectures, scientific discussions, conferences, etc Accent 1) suit of pronunciation, that is the bearing thinking(a)s, sift, rhythm and intonation ar used in the given expression society. 2) see stress. Accommodation modifications of consonants under the influence of the neighbouring vowel sounds and vice versa. Acoustic Phonetics lore which deals with the physical property of sanitarys.Affricates noise consonants micturated with a sleep together obstruction which is s depressedly released and the lineage float escapes from the mouth with nigh friction. Allophones variants of a phoneme, usu anyy conk in dissimilar positions in the word, can non contrast with each unlike and be not used to differentiate the meaning. Alveolar sounds produced with the top side of the diction against the upper teeth (alveolar) ridge. American face the national variant of the si de of spirit language talk in the USA.Amplitude the distance to which the air deducticles be displaced from their position of rest by the application of some external compact. Apical sounds joint with the bullock of the dialect. Applied Phonetics a appendage of phonetics used for practical purposes in lecture therapy and logopedia. Articulatory Phonetics also Physiological Phonetics, a archetypal of phonetics which is pertain with the body of work of legal transfer sounds as regards their production by the kind-hearted race spoken communication variety meat. Ascending head a eccentric of head in which syllables form an ascending sequence.Assimilation The modification of a consonant by a neighbouring consonant in the nomenclature chain. Auditory Phonetics a branch of phonetics which is touch with the authority our auditory mechanism works to process nomenclature information, also Perceptual Phonetics. Back vowels vowels make with the spit in the back part of the mouth. Back-advanced vowels vowels formed with the knife in the back-advanced position in the mouth. Back-lingual see velar. BBC slope the accent used on BBC radio and TV channels, is considered a standard side spoken in Great Britain, also Received Pronunciation.Bilabial sounds produced when both(prenominal) lips argon active. Bilingualism the command of 2 different languages by a person. British English the national variant of the English language spoken in Great Britain. Broad agreement also phonemic transcription, provides surplus symbols for all the phonemes of a language. Broad variations a submarineclass of the vertical positions of the expression which in this cuticle is placed slightly glower in the mouth orchestra pit. Cacuminal sounds articulated with the bakshish of the expression curled back.Central vowels sounds articulated when the mien part of the spittle is raise towards the back part of the secure palate. Checked vowels swin dle stressed vowels followed by fuddled voiceless consonants. Checkness a vowel property which depends on the character of articulatory transition from a vowel to a consonant Close vowels sounds articulated when the spit is raised high towards the hard palate. Closed syllable a syllable which ends in a consonant. Coda one or much phonemes that follow the syllabic phoneme.Communicative centre a word or a group of expression which conveys the well-nigh serious focus of communication in the fourth dimension or the utterance. Commutation test the procedure of substituting a sound for another sound in the similar phonetic environment with the call for of establishing the phonemic system of a language Comparative Phonetics a branch of phonetics which studies the cor similarity amid the phonetic systems of two or more languages Consonant a sound do with air stream that meets an obstruction in the mouth or skeletal cavities.Conversational style also conversational style, a style of speech used in everyday communication. Declamatory style a style of speech used in stage speech, recitations, etc. Delimitation segmentation of speech into phrases and intonation groups. Dental sounds produced with the blade of the tongue against the upper teeth Descending head a type of head in which syllables form an descending sequence Descriptive Phonetics a branch of phonetics that studies the phonetic social system of one language only in its passive form, synchronically.Devoicing a process that results in a mild consonant universe pronounced as voiceless. Dialect a variety of language which differs from others in vocabulary, grammar and pronunciation. Diglossia a phenomenon when an individual may speak RP in one situation a native local accent in other situations. Dynamic stress force accent ground importantly on the expiratory effect. Diphthong a vowel which constitutes of two divisors, strong (a nucleus) and weak (a glide).Diphthongoid a vowel articulated when the change in the tongue position is fairly weak, in this theme the articulated vowel is not pure, nevertheless it still consists of one element. Direct methods methods of phonetic investigation which consist in observing the roleplayments and positions of ones hold or other peoples organs of speech in pronouncing sundry(a) speech sounds, as well as in analysing ones birth kinaesthetic sensations during the conjunction of speech sounds and in comparing them with the resultant auditory impressions. Discourse a larger context in which sentences occur.Dorsal sounds produced when the blade of the tongue is active. season the quantity of time during which the same vibratory motion, the same patterns of vibration are maintained. Elision complete loss of sounds, both vowels and consonants, often observed in spoken English. Enclitic light words or syllables which refer to the preceding stressed word or syllable. Estuary English a variety of modifi ed regional speech, a florilegium of non-regional and local south-eastern English pronunciation and intonation. Estuary English speakers place themselves among Cockney and the Queen.Experimental Phonetics a branch of phonetics which deals with research work carried out with the help of different technical devices for measurements and for instrumental synopsis Extra-linguistic factors non-linguistic factors, much(prenominal) as the purpose of utterance, participants and setting or scene of verbalise, which result in phonostylistic varieties. Familiar style see conversational style. Forelingual sounds articulated with the effort part of the tongue Fortis consonants voiceless consonants pronounced with strong powerful tenseness and strong expiratory effect. heapsome variants variants of a single phoneme which occur in a language but the speakers are inconsistent in the way they use them, as for example in the case of the Russian words / . Free vowel a weak vowel followe d by a weak (lenis) voiced consonant or by no consonant at all. absolute frequency a round of vibrations per sulphur. Fricative constrictive noise consonants articulated when the air escapes with friction through the narrowing formed by speech organs. Front vowels vowels in the production of which the body of the tongue is in the front part of the mouth cavity and the front of the tongue is raised.Front-retracted vowels vowels produced with the body of the tongue in the front but retracted position in the mouth cavity. Functional Phonetics see phonology. ecumenic American the national standard of the English language spoken in the USA. General Phonetics a branch of phonetics that studies all the sound-producing possibilities of the human speech apparatus and the ways they are used for purposes of human communication by pith of language. Glide the second weak element of English diphthongs. Glottal sounds articulated in the glottis.Glottal stop a sound heard when the g lottis opens sharply and produces an explosion resembling a short cough. Glottis the disruption amid the strain cords, through which the air passes. Hard palate the roof of the mouth. Head part of the intonation group, contains stressed syllables preceding the nucleus with the intervening unemphatic syllables. Hesitation pause silent or filled pause mainly used in spontaneous speech to gain time to think everyplace what to say next. Historical Phonetics a branch of phonetics that studies the phonetic structure of a language in its historical development, diachronically.Idiolect individual speech of members of the same language community Informational style a style of speech used by radio and television announcers conveying information or in various official situations. submissive methods methods of phonetic investigation based upon registering or computing machines and technical devices Intensity a property of a sound produced by the bountifulness of vibrations. Int erdental sounds articulated with the fulfilment of the tongue projected between the teeth. International Phonetic Alphabet a set of symbols adopted by theInternational Phonetic Association as a customary system for the transcription of speech sounds. Intonation flip (or melody) variations used to convey meaning. See also prosody Intonation group an actualized syntagm. Intonation pattern pitch movements unneurotic with loudness and the tempo of speech extending over an intonation group. Intonation style a complex of interrelated intonational means which is used in a social situation and serves a definite aim of communication. Intonogramme the picture of the sound cast of a syllable, word or an utterance received with the help of intonograph.Intonograph a technical device which gives pictures of sound waves of syllables, words and utterances. Kinetic relating to motion. Labial sounds articulated by the lips. Labiodental sounds articulated with the lower lip against the edge of the upper teeth Laryngoscope a item device which helps to observe the vocal cords, epiglottis and the glottis. Larynx part of the vocal tract containing the vocal cords. Lateral sounds produced when the sides of the tongue are active. Lateral plosion fulminant release of air which escapes along the sides of the tongue.Lax historically short vowels in the adjunction of which muscular tension of speech organs is weak. Lenis consonants voiced consonants pronounced with weak muscular tension. Lip rounding a position of the lips when their corners are brought toward one another so that the mouth opening is reduced. Loudness the glitz of sound is produced by the premium of vibrations. Manner of articulation one of the principles of consonant classifications which is connected with the type of obstruction to the air stream.Maximum onsets principle Medio-lingual sounds produced with the front part of the tongue raised high to the hard palate Minimal pair a pair of words or morphemes which are differentiated by one sound only in the same position. Modifications of sounds positional and combinatory changes of sounds in connected speech. Monophthong a vowel articulated when the tongue position is stable, in this case the articulated vowel is pure, it consists of one element. speak cavity the cavity between the teeth and the pharynx. Narrow transcription also phonetic transcription, provides special symbols for all the allophones of the same phoneme Narrow variations a subclass of the vertical positions of the tongue which in this case is raised slightly higher(prenominal) in the mouth cavity Nasal consonants sounds articulated when the soft palate is lowered and the air stream goes out through the nose. Nasal Cavity the cavity inside the nose which is disjoinedd from the mouth cavity with the soft palate and the uvula. Nasal plosion sudden release of air by lowering the soft palate so that the air escapes through the nose.National va riants the language of a nation, the standard of its form, the language of its nations literature. Neutral vowel a mid central vowel, also schwa. Neutralisation the loss of qualitative and quantitative traces of vowels in unaccented positions. Noise consonants consonants in the production of which noise prevails over voice, the air stream passes through a narrowing and produces audible friction (compare with sonorants). Normative Phonetics see Practical Phonetics. Notation another terminal for transcription.Nuclear tone a profound change of pitch direction on the last strongly accented syllable in an intonation pattern. In general atomic tones may be dropping, rising and train or a combination of these movements. Nucleus 1) the last strongly accented syllable in an intonation pattern 2) the intimately prominent part of a diphthong 3) the centre of a syllable, usually a vowel. Obstructer mechanism a group of speech organs which form obstructions during articulation of consonants, it includes tongue, lips, hard and soft palate and teeth.Occlusive sounds produced when a complete obstruction to the air stream is formed. Onset sounds that precede the nucleus of a syllable. Open syllable a syllable which ends in a vowel. Open vowels vowels produced when the tongue is in the low part of the mouth cavity. Opposition see phonetic oppositions. Oral consonants sounds articulated when the soft palate is raised and the air stream goes out through the mouth. Organs of speech the human organs which together with biological constituents take part in sound production.Palatal sounds produced with the front part of the tongue raised high to the hard palate. Palatalisation softening of consonants due to the raised position of the middle part of the tongue towards the hard palate. Palato-alveolar sounds made with the tip or the blade of the tongue against the teeth ridge and the front part of the tongue raised towards the hard palate, thus having two pl aces of articulation (two foci). Paralinguistics a branch of linguistics which is concerned with non-verbal means of communication. Perceptual Phonetics see Auditory Phonetics.Pharynx the part of the throat which connects the larynx to the upper part of the vocal tract. Phonation voicing, the vibration of the vocal cords. Phone a sound realised in speech and which bears some individual, stylistic and social characteristics of the speaker. Phoneme the smallest further indivisible language unit that exists in the speech of all the members of a given language community as such speech sounds which are capable of distinguishing one word of the same language or one grammatical form of a word from another grammatical form of the same word.Phonemic transcription see broad transcription. Phonetic mistakes pronunciation mistakes made when an allophone of some phoneme is replaced by an allophone of a different phoneme. Phonetic oppositions comparison of sounds, words and morphemes in order to single out their minimal distinctive features. Phonetic transcription see narrow transcription. Phonetics a branch of linguistics which is concerned with the human noises by which the thought is actualized. Phonetics analyses the reputation of these sounds, their combinations and their go bads in relation to the meaning.Phonological analysis analysis whose aim is to determine which differences of sounds are phonemic/non-phonemic and to find the inventory of the phonemes of this or that language Phonological mistakes pronunciation mistakes made when an allophone of the phoneme is replaced by another allophone of the same phoneme in this case the meaning of the word is affected. Phonology also Functional Phonetics, a branch of phonetics that is concerned with the social berths of different phonetic phenomena.Phonosemantics a branch of psycholinguistics that studies the relations between the sound structure of a word and its meaning. Phonostylistics a branch of phone tics that studies the way phonetic means of the language function in various oral realizations of the language. Phonotactics the bailiwick of the possible phoneme combinations of a language. Physiological Phonetics see Articulatory Phonetics. Pitch the auditory characteristic of a sound, it corresponds to the fundamental frequency (the rate of vibrations of the vocal cords). Pitch take aim a particular height of pitch.Pitch range the interval between two pitch levels or two differently pitched syllables or parts of a syllable. Place of articulation the place in the vocal tract where the air stream is obstructed. Plosives consonants produced when the air stream is completely stopped for a short time, also stops. Post-alveolar sounds articulated with the tip or the blade of the tongue against the back part of the teeth ridge Power mechanism a group of speech organs which supplies energy for sound production, it includes lungs, diaphragm, windpipe, bronchi.Practical Phonetic s a branch of phonetics which teaches how to pronounce sounds correctly and what intonation to use to convey this or that meaning or emotion. It is called Normative Phonetics because teaches the norm of English pronunciation. Pragmalinguistics a branch of linguistics that studies what linguistic means and ways of influence on a hearer to choose in order to bring nigh certain cause in the process of communication. Pragmaphonetics a branch of Pragmalinguistics whose domain is to analyse the functioning and speech effects of the sound system of a language.Pre-head the unstressed syllables which precede the first stressed syllable of the head. Primary stress the strongest stress compared with the other stresses in a word. Principal allophone allophones which do not undergo every significant changes in the chain of speech. Proclitic unstressed words or syllables which refer to the avocation stressed word or syllable Prosody a complex unity formed by significant variations of p itch, tempo, loudness and timbre. Psycholinguistics a branch of linguistics which covers an extremely broad rea, from acoustic phonetics to language pathology, and includes such problems as acquisition of language by children, memory, attention, speech perception, second-language acquisition and so on. Publicistic style a style of speech used in public discussions on political, judicial or economic topics, sermons, parliamentary debates Qualitative connected with the spectral characteristics of a sound. Quantitative referring to the length of a sound. Received Pronunciation (RP) the national standard of the English language spoken in Great Britain. Reduced vowel a weakened vowel.Reduction weakening (either qualitative or quantitative) of vowels in unstressed positions. Resonator mechanism a group of speech organs which can change their shape and volume, thus forming the spectral component of the sound, it includes nasal and mouth cavities. Rhyme Rhythm recurrence of stress ed syllables at more or less equal intervals of time in speech. Rhythmic group a speech segment which contains a stressed syllable and a number of unstressed ones. The most frequent type of an English rhythmic group includes 2-4 syllables, one of which is stressed.Rounded a sound articulated with added lip rounding. Schwa see neutral vowel. scientific style see academic style. Secondary allophones allophones which undergo some predictable changes in different phonetic context. Secondary stress a less strong stress than the primary one, usually precedes the primary stress in a word. Segmental Phonetics a division of phonetics which is concerned with individual sounds (segments of speech) Segmentation division of speech into phrases and intonation groups. Semantic centre see communicative centre.Sentence stress the great degree of prominence given to certain words in an utterance. Sociolinguistics a branch of linguistics that studies the way the language interacts with soc iety. Soft palate the back, soft part of the hard palate. Sonorants consonants in the production of which noise prevails over voice, the air stream passes through a narrowing and produces audible friction (compare with sonorants). Sonority a degree of loudness relative to that of other sounds with the same length, stress and pitch.Special Phonetics a branch of phonetics which is concerned with the study of the phonetic structure of one language only. Spectrogram a picture of the spectrum of sounds, their frequency, intensity and time. Spectrograph a device which carries out the spectral analysis of speech. Stops see plosives Stress a greater degree of prominence which is caused by loudness, pitch, the length of a syllable and the vowel quality. Stress-timed languages in these languages stressed syllables tend to occur at relatively regular intervals irrespectively of the number of unstressed syllables separating them.Strong vowel the full form of a vowel in the stressed po sition. Stylistic modifications sound changes which dislodge under the influence of extra-linguistics factors. Subsidiary allophone see secondary allophone. Suprasegmental Phonetics a division of phonetics whose domain is larger units of connected speech syllables, words, phrases and texts Syllable a sound sequence, consisting of a centre which has little or no obstruction to airflow and which sounds comparatively loud sooner and after this centre on that point will be greater obstruction to airflow and less loud sound.Syllable-timed languages in these languages all syllables, whether stressed or unstressed, tend to occur at regular time-intervals and the time between stressed syllables will be shorter or longer depending on the number of unstressed syllables separating them. Syntagm a group of words which is semantically and syntactically complete. Tail any syllables between the nucleus and the end of the utterance. Tamber the same as timbre. Tempo the rate of the utter ance and pausation. Tense historically long vowels in the articulation of which muscular tension of speech organs is great.Terminal tone the nucleus and the tail of the utterance. Tertiary stress a less strong stress than the primary one, usually follows the primary stress in a word. Theoretical Phonetics a branch of phonetics which is mainly concerned with the functioning of phonetic units in the language. It discusses the problems of phonetics in academic terms and gives a scientific approach to the phonetic theory. Timbre voice quality. Tone languages the meaning of words in these languages depends on the variations of voice pitch in relation to neighbouring syllables.Tongue the most personal chattel and flexible speech organ. Transcription the system of symbols to represent speech in written form. Unstressed bearing no stress. Utterance a spoken sentence or a phrase. Uvula the end of the soft palate. Velar consonants produced with the back part of the tongue raised towards the soft palate Vibrator mechanism a group of speech organs which vibrate while the air passes through, thus producing voice, it includes larynx, vocal cords, glottis. Vocal cords two soft folds in the larynx which can be brought together and obscure, thus producing voice.Voice quality timbre. Voiced consonants sounds produced when the vocal cords are brought together and vibrate. Voiceless consonants sounds produced when the vocal cords are brought together and vibrate. Vowel a sound in the production of which no obstructions are made. Weak form the unstressed form of a sound or a word. Windpipe trachea or air passage. Word stress a greater degree of prominence on one of the syllables in a word. I. PHONETICS AS A BRANCH OF LINGUISTICS. BRANCHES OF PHONETICS. METHODS OF investigation 1. 1 IntroductionKnowledge of the structure of sound system and its articulatory and acoustic characteristics is very valuable in teaching and learning alien languages. The teacher h as to know the outset signal from which to begin teaching he must be able to point out the differences between the pupils mother tongue and the language to be learnt. He should be able to choose adequate training exercises. Thats why it is brisk to know, at to the lowest degree, the staple principles of this science. The term phonetics comes from the Greek words meaning sound or matters pertaining to voice. What does phonetics study?It is concerned with the human noises by which the thought is actualized (that is the oral aspect of speech communication). However phonetics takes the content level into consideration too. Only meaningful sound sequences are regarded as speech and phonetics is concerned only with such sounds which are carriers of organized information of a language. Phonetics analyses the nature of these sounds, their combinations and their functions in relation to the meaning. No kind of linguistic study can be carried out without constant consideration of the mater ial on the expression level.Consequently, phonetics is important in the study of a language. An understanding of it is a basis for any adequate understanding of the structure or functioning of a language. It follows from this that phonetics is a basic branch many would say the most fundamental branch of linguistics, because it gives a language a definite form. The vocabulary and grammar of a language can function only when the language has a phonetic form. So grammar and vocabulary depend on phonetics, they cannot exist outside of phonetics, because all lexical and grammar phenomena are expressed phonetically.Neither linguistic theory nor linguistic description can do without phonetics and is complete without it. Phonetics, being a branch of linguistics, occupies a peculiar position. On the one croak it serves as a means of expressing grammatical and lexical phenomena. On the other hand it has laws of its own which are independent of grammar and vocabulary. Besides it is closely c onnected with a number of other sciences, such as physics, biology, physiology, psychology etc. The more phonetics develops the more various branches of science become involved in the field of phonetic investigation.Phonetics is not a new science. It was known to the ancient Greeks and to the ancient Hindus. The scientists of that time were concerned with speech sounds only. It may be s assist that the orthography of all written languages which use alphabets developed in the course of a very precise phonetic analysis. Nevertheless, phonetics as an independent science began to develop only in the 19th century, before that it used to be a part of grammar. there has been considerable progress and growth in the 20th century. New concepts, methods of investigation, new theories and schools have been developed.Not only has the subject area of investigation in phonetics become wider, but several new branches of phonetics have also arisen. So our further point will be made on the branche s and divisions of phonetics. 1. 2 Branches and Divisions of Phonetics Everyone who starts learning a foreign language first of all is introduced into practical or normative phonetics. It studies the material form of phonetic phenomena in relation to meaning. It teaches how to pronounce sounds correctly and what intonation to use to convey this or that meaning or emotion. It is called normative because we are to teach the norm of English pronunciation.Theoretical phonetics is mainly concerned with the functioning of phonetic units in the language. It discusses the problems of phonetics in academic terms and gives a scientific approach to the phonetic theory. Other two important branches of phonetics are special and general phonetics. Special phonetics may be subdivided into descriptive and historical. Special descriptive phonetics is concerned with the study of the phonetic structure of one language only in its static form, synchronically and the domain of special historical phoneti cs is the phonetic structure of a language in its historical development, diachronically.Historical phonetics is part of the history of a language. Its aim is to construct and establish the successive changes in the phonetic system of a given language at different stages of its historical development. It is very important for the study of the upstart font phonetic system because without a historical approach it is impossible to understand how this modern phonetic system has developed and what further changes it is worryly to undergo.General phonetics studies all the sound-producing possibilities of the human speech apparatus and the ways they are used for purposes of human communication by means of language, it finds out what types of speech sounds exist in various languages of the world, how they are produced and what role they play in forming and expressing thoughts it also determines the nature, types and role of other phonetic means, such as word stress and intonation.General phonetics is based on the material which the special phonetics of a great number of languages provides it also uses data of other sciences physics, biology, psychology, speech pathology, etc. So it makes a number of general conclusions concerning the complex nature of speech sounds, analyses phonetic phenomena from different points of view and formulates phonetic theories. On the one hand general phonetics is based on the data of special phonetics on the other hand it provides valuable theoretical material which enables us to understand and to interpret correctly different phonetic phenomena of concrete languages.Another important division is into phonology and phonetics. According to the excogitation of the Prague Linguistic School phonetics and phonology are two independent branches of science, phonetics is a biological science which is concerned with the physical and physiological characteristics of speech sounds, and phonology is a linguistic science which is concerned with th e social functions of different phonetic phenomena. Another term for this branch is functional phonetics. The father of Phonology is Prince Nicholas Trubetskoi.His work Fundementals of Phonology separates phonetics and phonology, reflection that they are not related and that phonetics is not part of linguistics, but a biological science that deals only with the physiological aspect of speech sounds. Nevertheless it doesnt come out logical to separate function from phonetic forms, thus excluding phonetics from the linguistic sciences. So nowadays most phoneticians consider both phonetics and phonology part of linguistics. Phonetics itself is subdivided into 3 sub branches, each dealing with special aspects of sounds, their production by a speaker and perception by a listener.Phonetic processing starts on a neurophonetic level, in the judgment of a speaker, where the formation of the concept takes place. The human brain controls the behaviour of the articulatory (or speech) organs and makes them move in a particular way. The branch of phonetics which is concerned with the study of speech sounds as regards their production by the human speech organs is called articulatory (physiological) phonetics. In other words it deals with the way human organs uniting to produce sounds.Articulatory basis of a language is a set of articulation tendencies characteristic for a particular language community, so articulatory gesturing is culturally specific and not universal. Different articulations produce different acoustic effects, or different speech sounds. Consequently, speech sounds have a second aspect, a physical or, more exactly, an acoustic one, which constitutes the domain of acoustic phonetics. Acoustic phonetics involves knowledge of physics as it deals with the physical property of sounds. Any sound is a pressure disturbance transfer through an elastic medium.When articulatory gesturing starts it causes disturbance (a sound wave) in the medium, which is transmi tted from one particle of the medium to another and is reproduced as a sound wave travels from the source to the listener. Perceptual or auditory phonetics is concerned with the way our auditory mechanism works to process speech information. There is a boundary occupation between reception (which doesnt involve understanding) and perception (which involves decoding and understanding). Phonetic perception is a product of sensation and interpretation of speech elements which take place in a human brain.Phonetics is also divided into two major components segmental phonetics, which is concerned with individual sounds (segments of speech) and suprasegmental phonetics whose domain is larger units of connected speech syllables, words, phrases and texts. There are a number of other divisions of phonetics. We may speak about comparative phonetics whose aims are to study the correlation between the phonetic systems of two or more languages and find out the correspondences between speech soun ds and intonation structures.Its data are extremely useful in teaching and learning a foreign language as they show differences and similarities of the phonetic systems of two or more languages and predict possible difficulties for the learners. It should be mentioned that the most difficult phonetic phenomena are those disappear in the mother tongue. For example, the sounds ? -? cause a lot of difficulties for the Russian students of English, as there are no sounds with similar articulations in the Russian language.On the other hand the most stable and persistent pronunciation mistakes are made in those phenomena which are similar in the two languages but not exactly the same. For example, falling intonation. In English it goes to the very bottom of the voice, while in Russian it is not so steep and it does not reach the same low occupation as in English. The data of use phonetics are essential for practical purposes in speech therapy and logopedia. It helps to correct speech de fects and to teach deaf-mutes (or people who do not speak as a result of an accident or some disease) to speak.Experimental phonetics deals with research work which is carried out with the help of different technical devices, machines for measurements and for instrumental analysis. Phonetics as a whole and all of its branches have not come into being all at once they developed gradually, and their development was closely connected with and placed by the development of other branches of linguistics and other sciences. 1. 3. Phonetics and Social Sciences So our further point should be made in tie-in with the relationship between phonetics and social sciences. Language is not an isolated phenomenon it is a part of society.No branch of linguistics can be studied without taking into consideration at least the study of other aspects of society. In the past two decades we have seen the development of quite distinct interdisciplinary subjects, such as sociolinguistics (and sociophonetics correspondingly), psycholinguistics, mathematical linguistics and others. As their titles suggest, they are studied from two points of view and thus require knowledge of both. Sociophonetics studies the ways in which pronunciation functions in society. It is implicated in the ways in which phonetic structures vary in response to different social functions.Society here is used in its broadest sense, it includes such phenomena as nationality, regional and social groups, age, gender, different situations of speaking talking to equals, superiors, on the job, when we are trying to persuade, inform, agree and so on. The aim of sociophonetics is to correlate phonetic variations with situational factors. Its obvious that these data are vital for language learners who are to observe social norms and to accommodate to different situations they find themselves in. One more example of interdisciplinary overlap is the relation of linguistics to psychology.Psycholinguistics covers an extremely broad area, from acoustic phonetics to language pathology, and includes such problems as acquisition of language by children, memory, attention, speech perception, second-language acquisition and so on. Phonosemantics studies the relations between the sound structure of a word and its meaning. There is some data proving that the sounds that constitute a word have their own inner meaning, which causes certain associations in the listeners mind. For example, close vowels produce the effect of smallness, and voiceless consonants sound more unpleasant and rude than their voiced counterparts, etc.Some sounds are associated with certain colours. These data may be helpful in teaching, for example, tying together the sound structure of a word and its meaning, thus facilitating the process of memorising new words. Scientists have always been interested how children fetch their own language without being taught. They hope that these data might be useful in teaching grown-up people a foreign language, too. Pragmalinguistics is a comparatively new science, which studies what linguistic means and ways of influence on a hearer to choose in order to bring about certain effects in the process of communication.Correspondently the domain of pragmaphonetics is to analyse the functioning and speech effects of the sound system of a language. Phonetics is closely connected with a number of other sciences such as physics (or sooner acoustics), mathematics, biology, physiology and others. The more phonetics develops the more various branches of science become involved in the field of phonetic investigation. Phonetics has become important in a number of technological fields connected with communication.Phoneticians work alongside the communication engineers in devising and perfecting machines that can understand, that is respond to human speech, or machines for reading aloud the printed page and vice versa, converting speech directly into printed words on paper. Although scientists a re still dissatisfied with the quality of synthesized speech, these data are applied in gage systems, answering machines and for other technical purposes. 1. 4. Methods of Phonetic Investigation Methods applied in investigating the sound matter of the language have changed greatly with the development of technology and computer science.From the beginning of phonetics the phonetician has relied mainly on what he could feel of his own speech and on what he could hear both of his own and the informants speech. Such methods are called direct and consist in observing the movements and positions of ones own or other peoples organs of speech in pronouncing various speech sounds, as well as in analysing ones own kinaesthetic sensations (muscle tense) during the articulation of speech sounds and in comparing them with the resultant auditory impressions.Investigation by means of this method can be effective only if the persons employing it have been specially trained and have acquired consid erable skills in associating the qualities of the perceived sound with the nature of the articulations producing it. subservient methods were introduced into phonetics in the last century to supplement the impressions deriving from the human senses. These methods are based upon registering or computing machines and technical devices, such as spectrograph, intonograph, x-ray picture taking and cinematography, laryngoscope and some others.The introduction of machines for measurements and for instrumental analysis into phonetics has resulted in their use for detail study of many of the phenomena which are present in the sound wave or in the articulatory process at any given moment. These techniques can be very useful both for discovering in detail how English speakers produce their speech sounds, and for demonstrating to learners of English their pronunciation. Computers can provide additional pronunciation training, displaying useful information on the screen and being a powerful vi sual aid for effective phonetic practice.One more advantage of the modern experimental study of speech is the enormous amount of varied spoken speech data stored on computers. It facilitates the process of looking for cross-language differences and similarities. The data obtained from instrumental analysis supplement and verify those obtained by means of direct observation, thus making the research results more detailed and precise. II. THE ARTICULATORY CHARACTERISTIC OF THE ENGLISH SPEECH SOUNDS 2. 1. The Anatomo-mechanical Aspect of Sound Production Speech is impossible without the speech mechanism.So now our attention will be rivet on the articulatory aspect of speech sounds. Speech sounds are acoustic effects of the articulatory movements and positions of the human speech organs. The immediate source of speech sounds is the human speech mechanism developed and perfected in the process of the historical development of man. The organs of speech are the object of linguistic invest igation mainly from the point of view of the functions they perform in speech production. So before analysing the linguistic function of phonetic units we need to know how the speech mechanism acts in producing oral speech.According to their main sound-producing functions the speech organs can be roughly divided into the following four groups the power mechanism (lungs, diaphragm, windpipe, bronchi), the vibrator mechanism (larynx, vocal cords, glottis), the resonator mechanism (nasal and mouth cavities) and the obstructer mechanism (tongue, lips, hard and soft palate, teeth). From the lungs through the wind-pipe the air-stream passes to the larynx, containing the vocal cords. The opening between the vocal cords, through which the air passes, is called the glottis. The linguistic function of the vocal cords onsists in providing the source of energy necessary for speech production. When the vocal cords are kept wide apart (i. e. the glottis is open) the air passes between the cords and the result is non-phonic breath. Then the vocal cords may be drawn together tightly, so that air cannot pass between them. The sudden opening of the glottis produces an explosion resembling a short cough this sound is called the glottal stop. It often occurs in English when it reinforces or even replaces the sounds p, t, k or even when it precedes the energetic articulation of vowel sounds.The most important role of the vocal cords is their participation in the production of voice. The effect of voice is achieved when the vocal cords are brought slackly together, creating an obstacle to the air stream when the air pressure becomes very strong the air forces its way between the vocal cords thus making the, vibrate. When, as is usual, these vibrations are regular, they produce vocal tone, or voice, whose pitch depends on the frequency of vibrations. We are able to vary the speed of vibration of our vocal cords and thus to change the pitch.Conscious variations of pitch are respons ible for intonation. We are also able to modify the size of the puff of the air which escapes at each vibration, thus changing the amplitude of the vibration, which corresponds to the loudness of the sound heard by a listener. The air-stream, having passed through the vocal cords, is now subject to further modification, according to the shape of the pharynx, mouth and nasal cavities. The direction in which the air-stream will follow from the pharynx depends on the position of the soft palate.When it is lowered, the pharynx opens into the nasal cavity. When it is risen, the air-stream comes to the mouth cavity. As in the mouth cavity a lot of movable speech organs are situated it can easily change its shape, thus forming the majority of speech sounds. The movable (or active) speech organs, situated in the mouth cavity are the tongue, the soft palate with the uvula, the lips and the lower jaw. Of all the movable organs within the mouth cavity the tongue is the most flexible and activ e.For convenience, the surface of the tongue or divided into several parts the most flexible part of the tongue, which normally lies opposite the teeth ridge, is called the blade, the tip of the tongue being its extreme point. The part of the tongue next to the blade is called the front of the tongue. Then come the back and the root of the tongue. The tongue being the most active speech organ in the mouth cavity, the main principles of the majority of articulatory classifications of vowels are based on the movements and positions of the tongue. 2. 2. The system of English VowelsThe movements of the body of the tongue provide a convenient articulatory basis for classifying vowels according to two principles 1) horizontal and 2) vertical movements of the tongue. According to the horizontal movement five classes of English vowels are distinguished. They are 1) front i, e, e? , , ? 2) front-retracted ? , 3) central ? , ? , ? , , a? , a? 4) back ? , ? , u, a, 5) back-advanced ? , Not all phoneticians single out the classes of front-retracted and back-advanced vowels. So both i and ? vowels are classed as front, and both u and ? as back. The point is that the vowels in these two pairs differ in quality which is partially due to the raised part of the tongue. So in this case a more detailed classification seems to be a more precise one, since it adequately reflects the articulatory distinctions actually present in the language. Now lets view another articulatory characteristic of vowels, which is based on the vertical movement of the tongue. The way phoneticians of different schools approach this aspect is also slightly different.Some scholars distinguish three classes of vowels high (or close), mid and low (or open) vowels. But to mark all significant changes in vowel quality it is not enough to single out these three groups of vowels. For instance, both English vowels i and ? run low to the group of close vowels, but when the vowel ? is articulated t he front of the tongue is not so high in the mouth as it is in the case of the vowel i. Russian phoneticians made the classification more detailed distinguishing two subclasses in each class broad and narrow variations of the 3 vertical positions of the tongue.Thus the following 6 groups of vowels are distinguished 1) close a) narrow i, u b) broad ? , ? , , 2) mid a) narrow e, ? , ? , e? , b) broad ? , ? 3) open a) narrow , ? , b) broad ? , a? , a? , ? , a. In addition to the above-named principle of the classification of vowels phoneticians suggest five other criteria 1) stability of articulation 2) lip position 3) character of the vowel end 4) length 5) tenseness The stability of articulation specifies the actual position of the articulating organ in the process of the articulation.There are two possible variants a) the tongue position is stable, in this case the articulated vowel is pure, it consists of one element and is called a monophthong and b) the tongue position changes, in this case a vowel consists of two elements, the first one is strong, it is a nucleus, the second element is very weak it is a glide. There exists a third variety, when the change in the tongue position is fairly weak, in this case the articulated vowel is not pure, but it still consists of one element, such vowels are called diphthongoids.So according to this principle the English vowels are subdivided into a) monophthongs ? , ? , e, ? , ? , ? , ? , ? , ? , a b) diphthongs , , e? , , , a? , a? , c) diphthongoids i, u Some phoneticians, however, do not share this way of thinking and do not distinguish diphthongoids. But for the learners of English it is important to know this differentiation as it is useful for teaching purposes. Besides in modern English the tendency for diphthongization is becoming gradually stronger. Another feature of English vowels is lip rounding.Traditionally three lip positions are distinguished spread, neutral and rounded. In English lip rounding is not relevant phonologically (it means that no two words can be distinguished on its basis). Our next point should be made about another characteristic of English vowels. Its checkness. The quality of all English monophthongs in the stressed position is strongly affected by the following consonant. If a stressed vowel is followed by a strong (fortis) voiceless consonant it is cut off by it. In this case the end of the vowel is strong and the vowel is called checked.If a vowel is followed by a weak (lenis) voiced consonant or by no consonant at all the end of it is weak. In this case the vowel is called free. Now it should be useful to consider another articulatory characteristic of English vowels, that is their length or quantity. The English monophthongs are traditionally divided into short ? , e, ? , ? , ? , ? , ? and long ones i, a, ? , ? , u. It should be noted that vowel length or quantity has for a long time been the point of disagreement among phoneticians. The pr oblem is whether variations in quantity are meaningful (relevant) or not.Lets look at the pairs of words b? d bid, s? t sit. argon they distinguished from one another by the opposition of different length (thats the approach of D. Jones, an outstanding British phonetician) or is the difference in quality (or in other words the position of the active organ of speech) decisive here? Most Russian phoneticians are in favour of the second conception. They state that a feature can be systemic if it does not depend on the context. As to the length of English vowels, it varies and depends on a lot of factors, the first being phonetic context.The shortest are vowels followed by voiceless consonants and the longest are in free position. For example in meat i is half as long as the i in me, but may approximately have the same duration as the ? in mid. But still these words mid and meat are perceived as different words because the vowels are different in quality. So no matter what time is re quired for the articulation of these vowels, the main distinctive feature is quality, not quantity. As for tenseness we shall only mention that special instrumental analysis shows that historically long vowels are tense, and historically short ones are lax.To sum it up we may conclude that among all the articulatory features of English vowels only two are relevant the stability of articulation and tongue position. 2. 3. The System of English Consonants Before passing on to the classification of English consonants the difference between consonants and vowels should be considered. Acoustically consonants are noises, not musical tones like vowels. From the articulatory point of view the difference is due to the work of speech organs. In case of consonants various obstructions are made. As to the classification of English consonants there are few ways of seeing the situation.One of them is the classification according to the type of obstacle. On this ground two large classes of consonan ts are distinguished 1) occlusive, which are produced when a complete obstruction is formed t, d, p, b, k, g, m, n, ? 2) constrictive, which are produced when an incomplete obstruction is formed s, z, f, v, O, ? , ? , ? , h, w, r, l, j. Each of the 2 classes is subdivided into noise consonants (these are those in the production of which noise prevails over tone) and sonorants (in the production of which tone component prevails).Noise occlusive consonants are called stops because the air stream is completely stopped at some point of articulation and consequently released with an explosion, that is why they are also called plosives t, d, p, b, k, g. Constrictive noise consonants are called fricatives, because the air escapes through the narrowing with friction s, z, f, v, O, ? , ? , ? , h. Occlusive-constrictive consonants or affricates are noise consonants produced with a complete obstruction which is slowly released and the air stream escapes from the mouth with some friction. The re are only two affricates in English ? ,? . Other phoneticians suggest that the first and basic principle of classification should be the degree of noise. So consonants are divided first into noise consonants and sonorants and then each group is divided into little groups. Another very important principle is the place of articulation. According to this principle English consonants are classed into labial, lingual and glottal. I. Labial consonants in their turn are subdivided into a) bilabial (produced when both lips are active) w, m, p, b b) labio-dental (articulated with the lower lip against the edge of the upper teeth) f, v. II.Among the class of lingual consonants three subclasses are distinguished a) forelingual b) medio-lingual c) back-lingual. Forelingual consonants are also of three kinds 1) top(prenominal) (articulated with the tip of the tongue) t, d, s, z, O, ? , ? , ? , ? , ? , n, l. 2) dorsal (produced when the blade of the tongue is active). There are no dorsal cons onants in English. In Russian these are the sounds ?, ?, ?, ?, ?, ?, ?, ?. 3) cacuminal (articulated with the tip of the tongue curled back). There is only one cacuminal consonant in English r. According to the place of obstruction forelingual consonants may be interdental, rticulated with the tip of the tongue projected between the teeth O, ? dental, produced with the blade of the tongue against the upper teeth the Russian ?, ?, ?, ?, ?, ? alveolar, produced with the tip of the tongue against the upper teeth ridge t, d, s, z, n, l post-alveolar, articulated with the tip or the blade of the tongue against the back part of the teeth ridge r palato-alveolar, made with the tip or the blade of the tongue against the teeth ridge and the front part of the tongue raised towards the hard palate, thus having two places of articulation (two foci) ? ? , ? , ? . b) mediolingual consonants are produced with the front part of the tongue raised high to the hard palate, so they are always pa latal j. c) backlingual consonants are also called velar, because they are produced with the back part of the tongue raised towards the soft palate k, g, ? . III. The glottal consonant h is articulated in the glottis. There are no glottal consonants in Russian. One more articulatory characteristic which should be mentioned is the position of the soft palate.According to this principle consonants may be oral and nasal. There are only three nasal consonants in English, which require the lowered position of the soft palate m, n, . The rest of the consonants are oral because in their production the soft palate is raised and the air escapes through the mouth. Our next point will be made in connection with another sound property, that is voice-voiceless characteristic. When the vocal cords are brought together and vibrate we hear voice and the consonants are voiced b, d, g, v, z, ? , ? , ? . When the vocal cords are apart and do not vibrate we hear only noise and the consonants are voicel ess p, t, k, f, s, O, ? , ? . It should be noted that the difference between such pairs as p, b, t, d and so on is based not only on the absence or presence of the voice component, as voiced consonants are not fully voiced in all word positions, in word final position, for example, they are partially devoiced. Theres also energy difference. All voiced consonants are weak or lenis and all voiceless consonants are strong or fortis.Summing it up, it should be mentioned that the most important articulatory features, which could serve as a criterion for grouping consonants into functionally similar classes, are type of obstruction place of articulation and the active organ of speech force of articulation. The rest of the characteristics are considered to be irrelevant, as they are of no importance from the phonological point of view, but they provide necessary and useful information for teaching purposes. It is for this reason that they are normally included into the classification. III. THE acoustic AND AUDITORY ASPECTS OF THE ENGLISH SPEECH SOUNDS The auditory aspect of any sound is inseparable from its acoustic aspect and acoustic phonetics is closely connected with auditory phonetics and both may, therefore, be considered together. Objectively sound is a physical phenomenon, a kind of moving energy generated by some vibrating body. Subjectively sound is our perception of the vibrations of the air next to our ear-drum. People can perceive not all vibrations of the air but only when they occur at the rate of sixteen to twenty super acid times per second.Sounds may be periodical and non-periodical. If the vibrations of a physical body (vocal cords in our case) are rhythmical, the sound waves are periodical. The auditory impression of such periodical waves is a musical tone or a speech tone. If the wave is non-periodical, it is perceived as noise. Sound has a number of physical properties which all exist and manifest themselves simultaneously. They can be singled out from the others only for purposes of analysis. The first of these properties is frequency which is a number of vibrations per second.Our perception of the frequency is the pitch of the sound. The greater the frequency, the higher the pitch and vice versa. The frequency depends on certain physical properties of the vibrator, such as its mass, length and tension. The greater the mass of the vibrator, the pokey its vibrations and the lower the pitch. The longer the vibrator, the slower the vibrations and the lower the frequency and the pitch. Here the difference between men and women and adults and children voices lies. Mens and adults voices are lower than womens and childrens are, because their vocal cords are thicker and longer.Tension depends on the elasticity of the vocal cords. The vocal cords of elderly people are not as elastic as the vocal cords of younger people, children especially, so their voices sound rather low. As the tension increases the frequency increases and the pitch rises. The second physical property of sound is intensity, changes in which are perceived as variations in the loudness of sound. The intensity of sound is produced by the amplitude of vibrations (that is by the distance to which the air particles are displaced from their position of rest by the application of some external force).Intensity is measured in decibels. The intensity and frequency of sound are closely interdependent. The same amount of energy will produce either greater amplitude with a lower frequency or a higher frequency with smaller amplitude. Therefore if you increase the frequency without increasing the amount of energy you will shorten the amplitude and therefore reduce the intensity, that is produce a less loud sound. People are able to produce vowel sounds of various qualities or timbres. This is achieved through the bring through of the resonator mechanism.So the production and differentiation of vowels is based on the acoustic phenomenon that is cal led resonance. Sounds coming from different resonators travel different lengths (distances) or have different carrying power. The distance is proportionate to the volume of the resonator and the size of its orifice. Any sound has a certain duration or length. In other words it can exist and move only in time. The duration or length of a sound is the quantity of time during which the same vibratory motion, the same patterns of vibration are maintained. For this reason, the duration of a sound is often referred to as is quantity.The duration is measured in millisecond. We perceive the variations in duration as tempo or speed of utterance. In speech there are not definite boundaries between different speech sounds. So its very difficult to measure the length of separate sounds. In addition it should be mentioned that along with various articulatory classifications of speech sounds, there exist acoustic descriptions and classifications. The chief drawback of articulatory classification s is that they dont withdraw and define all shades of typologically identical speech sounds, especially vowels.Besides, one and the same speech sound can be pronounced by different people with slightly different positions and movements of their speech organs. Acoustic classifications seem to overcome these difficulties as they are more detailed and accurate. The first acoustic classification was based on spectrographic analysis. It was worked out by Roman Jakobson, C. G. M. Fant and M. Halle. However, acoustic classification, though more precise, are not practically applied in teaching. The acoustic features of speech sounds can not be seen directly or felt.But there are some other fields of the application of acoustic phonetics speech synthesis, health service, security systems, etc. IV. THE FUNCTIONAL ASPECT OF SPEECH SOUNDS 4. 1 Phoneme and Allophones Phoneticians not only describe and classify the material form of phonetic units. They are also interested in the way in which sou nd phenomena function in a particular language and what part they play in communication. The branch of phonetics that studies the linguistic function of consonant and vowel sounds, syllabic structures, word accent and prosodic features is called phonology.Unlike phonetics itself, whose domain is articulatory and acoustic features, phono

A Global Overview of Water Situation

Chapter 1 Introduction1.0 BACKGROUND1.0.1 A planetary overview of water supply state of affairsWater is the most of import natural alternatives impacting valet endurance. The weewee supply is a important factor in the economic activity of a state. Not plainly the economic system precisely the natural rubber of human humanity wellness and the environment( Yahya A. Shekha, 2013 ) ar of import issues which are the pillars when supervi hum parametric quantities used in measuring H2O and effluent. This being said, half a billion people live in water-stressed or water-scarce states and by 2025 that figure will turn to three billion due to an addition in population( Hanjra and Qureshi, 2010 ). Furthermore, 2 million diarrheal deceases related to insecure H2O, sanitation and hygiene are monitored yearly ( WHO 2015 ) with Mauritius being ranked at the 117 topographic point ( World wellness Rankings, 2011 ) .1.0.2Overview of the H2O situation/crisis in Mauritius R.JP1 Mauritius a trop ical island of 1,261,208 people( Statistics of Mauritius, 2014 )is said to be fortunate plenty to h obsolete sufficient H2O resources to get by with the ongoing exact. However, it should be noted that a high proportion of the rainfall occurs during the jointmer months and cyclones.Thematic Working Group ( 2011 )explains that from a sum of 3900 Mm3of rainfall 2067 Mm3goes as surface bubble over with 744 Millimeters3of it traveling to reservoirs, lakes and rivers while 9 % and 38 % are used to reload aquifers and are lost through evapotranspiration severally, therefore amounting the islands utilisable potency to merely nearly 1300 Mm3, finally conveying the state in a H2O emphasis state of affairs.This is farther demonstrated byMekonnen & A Hoekstra ( 2011 )who put Mauritius at a head of 74 % in the extremely water-scarce states that have a big external H2O dependence and besides by theUnited Nations schooling Programme ( UNDP ) Human Development Reportwhich stipulates that t he H2O supply is of 1083 m3per man-to-man per twelvemonth which is good below the criterion of 1700 m3per individual per twelvemonth.1.1 Water use and remedial for H2O scarceness in MauritiusMauritius in reality obtains fresh H2O from two resources viz.Surface H2O from 11 reservoirs,Groundwater from 350 boreholes taking H2O from 5 chief and 3 secondary aquifers.( Digest of cipher and Water Statistics 2012, Rageshwar Pokhun 2002 and V. Proag 2006 ) .Harmonizing toDigest of Energy and Water Statistics ( 2013 ), of the overall 888 Millimeter3of H2O used by the state 26 % is used by the domestic, industrial and touristry sector, 32 % by the hydropower Stationss while the major(ip) staying 42 % goes to the agricultural sector. Not merely in Mauritius but from whatHanjra and Qureshi ( 2010 ), the dominant user of H2O is irrigated agribusiness which accounts for 80 % of the planetary H2O usage this is where the demand for effluent reuse has been prompted.Conventional effluent direction as explained byChin et Al. ( 2009 )adopts the Mix-First-and-Separate-Later construct whereby the wastewaters approaches the features of greywater therefore doing the separation at beginning the manner out for better H2O quality.1.1.1The possible public-service corporation of domestic effluent at beginningDue to the major H2O crisis being felt worldwide and locally, an increasing involvement has been drawn to the onsite reuse of greywater as a method to decrease the overall H2O demand( Gilboa & A Friedler )and has already become platitude in H2O stressed states like Australia and Mediterranean( Revitt. et.al 2010 ). Knowing that Mauritius has merely 29 % of its population connected to sewer while the staying rely on on-site effluent disposal system( R. Joysury. et Al. 2012 ), the supra would be a good endeavour in order to cut down the H2O demand in the state.1.1.1.1GreywaterGreywater is effluent from bathing tub, showers, kitchen sinks, rinsing machines and toilets and is worldly recognised as an alternate H2O beginning for non-potable utilizations( Couto, EA. et Al. 2014 ).Matos. et Al. ( 2002 )provinces that it is produced on a much higher volume and lower degree of pollution as blackwater therefore doing it a possible H2O resource option if gaining control before it reaches the cloaca.EPA ( 2002 )estimations greywaters day-to-day coevals per capita to be 200 to 300 liters and stand foring 50-80 % of entire effluent at family degree( Aguiar do Couto. et Al. 2014 )From enquiry done byAmy Vickers ( 2001 )on H2O use in the domestic sector, it came to visible radiation that the indoor H2O use is 69 % while the out-of-door one is 31 % . From these 69 % , sing a individual household H2O conserving place, 8 chief classs are found viz. lavatory, showers, spigots, baths, dishwasher, apparels washer, leaks and other domestic public-service corporations in the proportions illustrated in figure 1.1.Figure 1.1 Pie chart demoing the mean indoor H2O usage in a conservin g individual household place adapted from Amy Vickers ( 2001 )This immense sum of H2O if hardened can be considered for applications such as toilet/urinal flushing, irrigation intents, vehicle lavation, fire protection, boiler provender H2O, concrete production and saving of wetlands and is anticipate to cut down fresh H2O demand by 30 %( Jefferson. et Al. 2004 )hence bettering the H2O usage efficiency and could play a notable function in future H2O direction schemes( March & A Gual, 2009 ) .1.1.2The outgrowth of new eco-friendly preventive systemsBing biologically polluted, greywater represents a high healthful hazard in footings of air of micro-organisms and needs biological greywater intervention engineering such as membrane bioreactor, revolving biological contactor or constructed wetland. In order to utilize greywater at its full usage, onsite intervention is compulsory, one eco-friendly, simple operation and care and low-priced option for effluent intervention in developi ng waterless and semi-arid states would be Constructed Wetlands ( CWs )( United States Environmental breastplate bureau 1993, UN-HABITAT, 2008, Abdel-Shafy. et Al. 2009 ).When sing onsite greywater reuse, factors such as healthful, environmental and aesthetic quality demand besides to be expression after due to its propinquity to the cosmopolitan populace. Finally effectual disinfection system which are robust, inexpensive safe, low care and simple demand to be accomplished beforehand ( Friedler & A Gilboa, 2010 ) so as to run intoing H2O quality demands before usage.Harmonizing toJefferson. et Al. ( 2004 ), the H2O quality demands for each applications are geospecific nevertheless by and large consist of standards such as organic, solids and microbiological bailiwick of the H2O. In Mauritius, the quality demands for H2O reuse are given in the Environmental Protection Act of 2002. Throughout this thesis the relevancy of obtained informations will be compared with the criterion o f wastewater for usage in irrigation of the environment protection ordinances 2003 ( Environment Protection Act, 2002 ) . As mentioned byMainon. et Al. ( 2014 ), both a suited intervention and disinfection units are recommended as preventative step for on-site greywater reuse.1.2PurposesIn this survey, we will look into two established oxidization methods for effluent disinfection which are chlorination and UV visible radiation radiation. Their single public presentations in extinguishing the public wellness hazards through quantitative analysis of pathogens indexs ( Entire Coliforms & A Faecal Coliforms ) in treated greywater arising from an onsite horizontal subsurface operate constructed wetland ( HSSFCW ) of a individual family will be assessed. The disinfected H2O will be considered for reuse for non-potable intents such as irrigation and should stay to the criterions of wastewater for irrigation given in EPA 2002.1.3AimsThe aims are as followsDesign and building of an HSSFCW at a individual family degree.Monitoring of the Entire Coliforms and Faecal Coliforms in treated H2O from a HSSFCW.Measuring Cl and UV disinfection of the treated H2O.Statistical analyse of informations obtained from laboratory experiments and verify if the disinfected greywater meets the criterion of wastewater for usage for irrigation in conformity with EPA 2002.Proposing the least-costly method of disinfection that can be applied at a individual family degree.Thingss to addThe chief disbursals related to sewage services are capital cost, operation and care costs and the procurance of land. In this sense appropriate engineering should be low-cost ( capital cost ) have a low operation and care cost ( sustainability ) , be effectual in run intoing the force out criterions ( efficiency ) give the least nuisance ( public acceptableness ) and be environmentally friendly. Therefore natural effluent intervention processes ( ie non-electromechanical, utilizing physical and biological pr ocedures ) that are simple, low-priced and low care are preferred as appropriate options for conventional effluent intervention by any state but particularly in developing states in the tropical countries. ( Mburu. et Al, 2013 )( Vymazal, 2008 )Constructed wetlands with horizontal subsurface return have beed used for effluent intervention for more than 30 old ages. These effluent scope from domestic, industrial such as petrochemical, nutrient processing and distilleries among so much and agricultural sectors with each exhibiting BOD and COD removal above 60 % .Typical composing of municipal effluentsBOD5 220 mg/lPod 500 mg/lToxic shock 220 mg/lNH4-N 25 mg/lNOX-N 0 mg/lNorg 15 mg/lTKN 40 mg/lTP 8 mg/lPedescoll. Et Al, 2011 utter energy demands and non-specialised work force for works direction are among the most of import advantages of SSFCWs in comparing to conventional options such as the activated muck proceduresChen et Al 2014Due to climate alteration and population growing so me 80 states and 40 % of the worlds population are sing H2O emphasis, both in footings of H2O scarceness and quality impairment. Wastewater vicissitude for direct and indirect utilizations is considered to be one of the options that could be used to release H2O deficits in waterless and semi-arid parts.Villasenor et Al 2013One of the classical low cost engineerings for effluent intervention involves constructed wetlands. These systems consist of wetlands that are isolated from the environment around them and have effluent. Depending on the type of CWs, they are formed by different elements including macrophytes workss, a porous solid bed and a assorted population of micro-organisms in the signifier of biofilms. Water purification is achieved by a complex combination of natural physical, chemical and biological phenomena. One of the chief types of CWs is the horizontal subsurface flow constructed wetland ( HSSF-CW ) in which H2O circulates through a porous bed of crushed rock on wh ich macrophytes workss turn.Morato. Et Al, 2014Water deficit in waterless and semi-arid countries such as the Mediterranean have prompted a demand for effluent intervention and subsequent reuse. Reclamation can be achieved through conventional intensive systems or natural, ecologically engineered interventions such as horizontal subsurface flow constructed wetlands. Depending on effluent type, some infective micro-organisms may be present and hence wastewater renewal processes with disinfection could be required.As enteric beings, most may non last and may besides be destroyed by predation. Water temperature, organic affair meanness and hydraulic conditions such as flow, aspect ratio and farinaceous media type are some of the most of import factors regulating happening and growing of viable bugs in biofilms developed elsewhere.In general, most surveies on fecal micro-organism remotion in constructed wetlands merely describe entire and fecal coliform remotion. Research utilizing ex perimental, pilot and full-scale constructed wetlands has shown that fecal coliform bacteriums inactivation normally ranges between 1.25 and 2.5 log units.